
Glass Q , r\ ^<o 
Book^ S £> fe 



: 



CLASS BOOK OF ANATOMY, 



EXPLANATORY OF THE FIRST PRINCIPLES 




<^&zz?&&-sr/s^ 



HUMAN ORGANIZATION, 



AS THE BASIS OF 



PHYSICAL EDUCATION. 

DESIGNED FOR SCHOOLS 



£ m * 






JEROME VAN CROWNINSHIELD SMITH, M, D., 

Formerly Prof, of Gen. Anat. and Physiol, in the Berkshire Med. Inst.: Author 

of a Treatise on the Economy of the Honey Bee; Nat. Hist, of the Fishes of 

Mass.; Illustr. of the Organs of Sense; The Scientific Tracts — a series 

of volumes : and Editor of the Boston Med. and Surg. Journal. 



" I am fearfully and wonderfully made." 

WITH NUMEROUS ILLUSTRATIONS, AND A VOCABULARY 
OF TECHNICAL TERMS. 



SECOND EDITION, 

REVISED, ENLARGED, AND STEREOTYPED. 



BOSTON: 
PUBLISHED BY ROBERT S. 




VIS, 



AND SOLD BY THE PRINCIPAL BOOKSELLERS 



18 36. 




Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1836, 

BY JEROME V. C. SMITH, 

In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of Massachusetts. 



*?*/ 



boston: 
stereotyped by shepard, oliver*, anj) co. 



PREFACE 

TO THE FIRST EDITION. 



Should the following work, in the hands of public 
instructers, be instrumental in explaining to the young 
a general knowledge of their own curious organization, 
it may lead to the adoption of such habits in early life, as 
will insure health in youth, and intellectual vigor in age. 

The questions interspersed through the book are far 
from embracing all the subjects adverted to in the several 
natural divisions of the text : they are merely examples 
of the best mode of conducting the study, leaving it 
entirely with the teacher to select such parts for recitation 
as he may conceive most advisable. 

Technical words have not been wholly avoided ; such 
as have been retained are for the master, to aid him in 
acquiring a more minute and exact knowledge of the 
science, that he may be the better prepared to assist those 
who are intrusted to his care. 

If the volume should meet the approbation of those who 
are devoted to the best interests of mankind, it will not 
have been written in vain. 

J. V. C. Smith. 

Quarantine Ground, 
Port of Boston. 

Jan. 1834. 



PREFACE 

TO THE SECOND EDITION. 



A story is related of a painter, who suspended a picture 
in the market-place of the city where he resided, on 
which his utmost skill had been exerted. By the side 
of it was a brush and colors, with a request that all good 
judges of the divine art of painting would judiciously 
alter any defects they might discover, which had escaped 
his own eye. 

Nothing could have been more gratifying to the innate 
vanity of such as considered themselves qualified to 
decide upon the value or demerits of every thing they 
saw, than this general invitation. Every one who looked 
at the canvass discovered something in the composition 
essentially wrong, which was retouched, according to their 
own individual ideas of the sublime or the beautiful. The 
brush was no sooner laid down than another took it up : 
it was therefore constantly applied : but when the author 
called at evening to examine and admire the friendship 
which had been manifested for his reputation as an 
artist, there was not a single vestige of the original 
design remaining. Although all who chose had con- 
tributed the pigment which they considered absolutely 
necessary to perfect the picture, the next day it was 
unanimously declared that the painter was a man of no 
ingenuity or knowledge in his profession. 

When the Class Book of Anatomy was first published, 
it was variously criticised by those who gave very clear 
and distinct rules for constructing a work that should meet 
with universal approbation. As no such system has 
made its appearance, and the first of a large edition 
having been completely exhausted, a second is now given, 
with considerable additional matter, and the whole care- 



PREFACE. V 

fully revised. The Class Book of Anatomy has been 
introduced into many academies and some of the higher 
class of seminaries : it is, therefore, confidently believed 
that it will now be found worthy of a more widely 
extended circulation. 

Some have advised that no scientific terms should be 
used : but without them the science could not be taught. 
Others have, with equal strength, urged the importance 
of resorting to technical words as much as possible. To 
accommodate the text to the precise plan which different 
instructers have proposed, would have been a hopeless 
undertaking. Having taught anatomy and physiology 
many years, and in different collegiate institutions lec- 
tured before classes, the individuals of which, though not 
expecting to study medicine, were nevertheless required 
to learn the general principles of these sciences, the plan 
adopted here was most advantageously pursued. 

Time will suggest further modifications and improve- 
ments, The author does not suppose this to be the 
best book that could have been prepared on elementary 
anatomy: thus far, it is the best that he can make. 

Kesiding on a small island, in the outer harbor of 
Boston, a considerable part of the year, remote from 
society, the study of Natural History is a source of never 
tiring enjoyment. The following pages were written in 
a succession of otherwise unemployed evenings, — and 
should they prove a source of pleasure and utility to 
others, it will be a pleasant reflection that the hours were 
usefully appropriated. 

J. V. C. Smith, 

Quarantine Ground, ) 
Port of Boston. ) 

October, 1836. 
1# 



CONTENTS. 





Page. 


The Bones, — Osteology, .... 


8 


The Ligaments, — Syndesmology, 


44 


The Muscles, — Myology, .... 


49 


Apparatus of Joints, — Bursalogy, . 


110 


Fluids,— Angiology, . . . . 


110 


The Nerves, — Neurology, . . . 


141 


The Senses, . . ... 


158 


The Ear, 


158 


The Eye, . . . . . 


183 


Feeling, or Touch, 


218 


Smell, . . . . . 


218 


Taste, . 


218 


The Glands, — Adenology, .... 


219 


Ventriloquism, ....... 


237 


The Viscera, — Splanchnology, 


239 


Mechanism of the Stomach in Birds and Rumi- 




nant Animals, . . 


246 


The Fluids, — Hygrology, 


256 


The Skin, 


258 


Glossary, 


261 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 



Anatomy explains the nature, office, and structure of 
every part of the human body. 

From remote antiquity, men of learning and persevering 
industry have labored to comprehend and explain the 
complicated machinery of man, but at no period has the 
subject been better understood than at the present. By 
the study of this science, the condition of the species has 
been ameliorated ; extreme sufferings have been avoided ; 
and human life has been prolonged. 

On the minds of youth the influence exerted by a con- 
templation of their own physical condition, founded on a 
general knowledge of the situation and functions of the 
different organs, must have a beneficial tendency. As 
they discover the exact regularity of parts ; the beauty 
and harmony resulting from particular combinations of 
machinery, endowed with a high degree of vitality, on 
the action of which health, life, and happiness are con- 
stantly depending, it would be strange indeed if they did 
not fall in humble adoration before that Supreme Intelli- 
gence which created and sustains them. 

Comparative anatomy implies a dissection of the infe- 
rior animals, as birds, fishes, reptiles, and even plants, in 
order to demonstrate, analogically, trie functions of simi- 
lar apparatus in man. This is an exceedingly useful 
pursuit, and though philosophers have apparently been 
guilty of unnecessary cruelties, all their researches have 
had reference to relieving mankind from some of those 

What is understood by the science What is comparative anatomy ? 
of anatomy ? 



8 ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 

manifold evils, to which the splendid mechanical organi- 
zation of the frame is predisposed. 

ANATOMY IS DIVIDED INTO NINE PARTS. 

■ Os-te-ol-o-gy, which treats of the bones. 

Syn-des-mol-o-gy, " " " ligaments. 

My-ol-o-gy, " " " muscles. 

3Neu-rol-o-gy, " " " nerves. 

Bur-sal-o-gy, " " " apparatus of the joints. 

An-gi ol-o-gy, " " of vessels, as veins and arteries. 

A-den-ol-o-gy, " " of the glands. 

Splanch-nol-o-gy, " " " viscera, as the stomach, &c. 

Hyg-rol-o-gy, " " " fluids, as the blood, bile, &c. 



OSTEOLOGY. 



All the bones, in manhood, are hard, and almost insen- 
sible, being composed of earth and lime, held together by 
means of gelatin, a kind of glue, secreted by appropriate 
vessels. The substance of the long bones, as, for exam- 
ple, those of the limbs, are compact, excepting at their 
extremities, where they become irregularly larger, and 
slightly spongy. They are classed in the following 
manner : — 

C 1. Cylindrical, — bones, as in the arms. 

< 2. Flat, — bones, as in the shoulderblades. 

C 3. Irregular, — bones, as the ribs and those of the skull. 

THEY ARE FURTHER SUBDIVIDED INTO, 

First, — hollow bones, possessing marrow. 
Second, — flat bones, or those destitute of marrow. 

Before arriving at about the age of twenty, the ends of 
the bones are considerably spongy, and imperfectly united 
to the main shaft, and, therefore, termed epiphyses, from 
two Greek words, meaning to grow upon; but afterwards 
they become firmly united. 

The names of a majority of the bones are very arbitra- 
ry; some of them, however, have their appellation from a 
fancied resemblance to some object; others are named 
from their shape, connexion, or supposed or real use. 

What is osteology ? How are bones further subdivided ? 

Of what are bones composed ? What are epiphyses ? 

How are bones classed ? How are the names of bones de- 

At what age are they complete ? rived ? 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 9 

Every cavity, hole, or prominence, even to the burden 
of the science, has also a name, a knowledge of which 
is a key to the parts either directly in contact, or lying 
in the immediate vicinity. 

Protuberances are termed processes, and are generally 
the points of attachment for muscles or ligaments ; the 
first being the moving power, and the latter the bands 
which keep the ends of any two bones in juxtaposition. 

A natural skeleton is held together by the original 
ligaments ; specimens of these kinds of preparations are 
common. 

An artificial skeleton is united together by wires. 

In the human skeleton there are two hundred and 
fifty-two separate bones. People who labor hard have 
sometimes an extra number, which are formed near the 
joints of the thumb, fore finger, and toes. They are 
called sesamoids, from their resemblance to the seed of 
the sesamum plant. They are useful in increasing the 
power of the muscles wherever they grow. 

THE SKELETON IS DIVIDED INTO., 

First, — the head. 
Second, — the trunk. 
Third, — the extremities. 



FIRST DIVISION. 

There are fifty-five bones entering into the composition 
of the head, by including thirty-two teeth. 

EIGHT BONES IN THE SKULL. 

One os frontis, — above the eyes, constituting the forehead. 

Two ossa parietalia, — making the sides, above the ears. 

Two ossa temporum,— or temple bones. 

One os ethmoides, — or sieve-like bone, lying between the brain and 
root of the nose. 

One os sphenoides, — being the bottom of the skull, nearly conceal- 
ed. 

One os occipitis, — at the lower and back part of the head. 

What are processes ? How many bones in a human skele- 

What is a natural skeleton ? ton ? 

How does an artificial skeleton dif- What are sesamoid bones ? 

fer ? Of what use are the sesamoids ? 

How is the skeleton divided ? How many bones in the skull ? 



10 ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 



FOURTEEN BONES IN THE FACE. 

Two ossa maxillaria superiora, — the two making the upper jaw. 

Two ossa malarum, — or prominent cheek bones. 

Two ossa nasi, — one each side, making the arch of the nose. 

Two ossa lachrymalia, — just within the angle of the orbit of the 

eye. 
Two ossa palatina, — in the back part of the roof of the mouth. 
Two ossa turbinata, — within the nostrils. 
One os vomer, — the partition in the centre of the nose. 
One os maxillare inferius, — the under jaw. 

THIRTY-TWO TEETH. 

' Eight incissores, — front, or cutting teeth ; — four in each jaw. 

Four cuspidates, — eye teeth, two above and two below. 

Eight bicuspides, — or small double teeth, with two cutting points. 

Eight molares, — grinding teeth. 
^Four sapientias, — wisdom teeth. 

IN THE TONGUE. 

One os hyoides, — shaped like a capital U, and situated at the under 
and back surface of the under jaw, and above the protuberance of 
the throat. 

Four concealed bones of the ear, collectively termed 

ossicula auditus. 

Two mallei, malleus, — faintly resembling a mallet. 

Two incudes, incus, — or the anvil-shaped bone of the ear. 

Two stapedes, stapes, or stirrup, — almost a fac simile of the stirrup 

of a saddle. 
Two orbieularia, — or round bones, but considerably smaller than a 

mustard seed, and the smallest bones of the skeleton. 



SECOND DIVISION. 

FIFTY-FOUR BONES OF THE TRUNK. 

The spine, or back bone, is constructed of twenty-four 

blocks, called vertebrae, — of which there are 

f Seven cervical vertebrae, — or joints in the neck. 
J Twelve dorsal vertebras, — or joints in the back. 
| Five lumbar Vertebras, — being larger joints, in the loins or small of 
[ the back. 

TWENTY-FIVE BONES IN THE CHEST, OR THORAX. 

One sternum, — or breast bone. 

Twenty-four costae, — or ribs ; the seven uppermost are the true, and 
the five lowest false, or floating. 

How many bones in the face ? What is the spine ? 

How many teeth, and how classed ? What are vertebrae ? 

Is there a bone in the tongue ? How is the thorax situated ? 

What is its use ? How many ribs are there ? 
How many bones in the trunk ? 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 11 



FIVE BONES OF THE PELVIS. 

Two ossa innominata, — or nameless, being the broad hip bones. 

One os sacrum, — being the foundation on which the spinal column 

rests, of a pyramidical figure, with its base upward. 
Two ossa coccygis, — the extreme lowest point of the sacrum. 

SIXTY-FOUR BONES OF THE UPPER EXTREMITIES, 

In the ( Two claviculce, — collar bones. 

shoulders, ( Two scapulce, — shoulderblades. 

In the arms, two ossa humeri, — between the shoulder and elbow. 

In the { Two ulnce, — on the under side of the fore arm. 

fore arm, ( Two radii, — on the upper edge. 

THE HAND IS DIVIDED INTO 

C The carpus, — or wrist. 

< The metacarpus, — palm of the hand. 2 

r The phalanges, — bones of the fingers. 2 

( Os naviculare, — boat-shaped bone. 2 

Os lunare, — moon-shaped bone. 2 

Ossa carpi, or Os cuneiforme,— wedge-shaped bone. 2 

wrist bones, , Os orbiculare,-^round, or nearly so, bone. 2 

eight in each j Os trapezium, — a geometrical figure. 2 

wrist. Os trapezoides, — resembling the last bone. 2 

Os magnum, — so called because the largest. 2 

Os unciforme, — being hooked. 2 
Ossa metacarpi, — ten metacarpal bones, or roots of the fingers, consti- 
tuting the palms. Five in each hand. 
In the fingers, twenty-eight phalanges, — finger bones, 

SIXTY BONES OF THE INFERIOR EXTREMITIES. 

In the thighs, two oss&femoris, — thigh bones. 
In the leg, two patellae, — knee pans. 

two fibulae, — outside bones of the leg. 

two tibia, — or shin bones. 

THE FOOT IS DIVIDED INTO 

First, — tarsus, — or instep. 

Second, — metatarsus, — foundation of the toes. 

Third, — phalanges, — the bones of the toes. 

[ Os calcis, — heel bone. 2 

n • Os astragalus, — making part of the ankle joint. 2 

or insten 1 ° s cuboides — square bone. 2 

P" I Os naviculare, — boat-shaped bone. 2 

[ Ossa cuneiformia, — wedge-shaped. 6 

Ossa metatarsi, — five bones, foundation of the toes. 10 

In the toes of each foot, fourteen bones, or phalanges, — 28 

Eight bones, the sesamoides, in the thumbs and 
great toes, though not always constant. Total. 252 



What bones constitute the pelvis ? How many bones in the lower 

How many bones in the superior limbs ? 

extremities ? How many bones in the foot ? 

How is the hand divided ? Can you remember their names 1 
What are the finger bones called ? 



12 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 
Fig. 1. 




A front view of the male skeleton. 

HEAD AND NECK. 

a, The frontal bone. 

b, The parietal bone. 

c, The temporal bone. 

d } A portion of the sphenoid 
bone. 

e, The nasal bone. 

f, The malar, or cheek bones. 

g, The superior maxillary, or 

upper jaw. 
b, The lower jaw. 
i i The bones of the neck. 



a, The twelve bones of the 

back; 

b, The five bones of the loins. 

c, d, The breast bone. 
e,f The seven true ribs. 

f-, g, The five false ribs. 
, The rump bone, or sacrum. 
i, The hip bones. 

UPPER EXTREMITY. 

a, The collar bone. 

6, The shoulderblade. 
c, The upper arm bone. 
d } The radius. 

c, The ulna. 
f The carpus, or wrist. 
g % The bones of the hand. 
h, 1st row of finger bones, 
t, 2d row of finger bones. 
k, 3d row of finger bones. 

7, The bones of the thumb. 

LOWER EXTREMITY. 

a, The thigh bone. 

6, The knee pan. 

c, The tibia, or large bone of the 

leg. 
rf, The fibula, or small bone of 

the leg. 
c, The heel bone. 
f The bones of the instep. 
g y The bones of the foot. 
a, The first row of toe bones, 
i, The second row of toe bones. 
k, The third row of toe bones. 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 
Fig. 2. 



13 




A back view of the male skeleton. 

THE HEAD. 

a, The parietal bone. 

b, The occipital bone. 

c, The temporal bone. 

d, The cheek bone. 

e, The lower jaw bone. 

NECK AND TRUNK. 

a, The bones of the neck. 
6, The bones of the back. 

c, The bones of the loins. 

d, The hip bone. 
e } The sacrum. 

UPPER EXTREMITY. 

a, The collar bone. 

b, The blade bone. 

c, The upper bone of the arm. 
rf, The radius. 

c, The ulna. 

ft The bones of the wrist. 

g; The bones of the hand. 

h, The first row of finger bones. 

i, The second row of finger 

bones. 
k y The third row of finger 

bones. 
/, The bones of the thumb. 

LOWER EXTREMITY. 

a, The thigh bone. 

b, The large bone of the leg. 

c, The small bone of the leg. 

d, The heel bone. 

e, The bones of the instep. 
f The bones of the toes. 



14 ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 



THE CONNEXION OF BONES. 

When united with one another, in a way to admit of 
motion, the union is termed diarthrosis. Bones united in 
a manner admitting of no motion at all, are said to be 
connected by synarthrosis. And when they are joined 
by the intervention of any substance, it is called a union 
by symphysis. 

The round head of the thigh bone, rolling in its deep 
socket, is an example of the movable connexion, or 
diarthrosis. All the bones of the head present a union 
by synarthrosis. In the racking or twisting motion of 
the vertebrae of the spine, we find an illustration of the 
last division; between every two bones there is an elastic 
substance to keep them from coming in contact ; this is 
symphysis. 

STRUCTURE. 

Ail the large, round bones, particularly of the arms and 
legs, are hollow, for two purposes, — viz. first, because 
they are stronger for being hollow; and secondly, they 
are store-houses. The marrow is not placed in the cavi- 
ties to keep the bones from being brittle, but. to supply 
the system with food when the "stomach cannot or does 
not perform its digestive office. 

During a long course of sickness, we take little or no 
food ; but as nutriment must be provided, to keep a 
proper quantity of blood in existence, the marrow is now 
carried from the bones and converted into blood. When 
that has been exhausted, the fat, wherever it exists, is 
next taken, till the body becomes almost a skeleton. 

This is the reason a sick person becomes poor and 
lean. A scanty supply of food leads to the same result ; 
hence horses and other animals are poor y because they 
are partly nourished by converting a part of their own 
bodies into food. As soon as the stomach is abundantly 
supplied again, and is able to pursue its accustomed labor, 
the marrow and fat are all returned and packed precisely 
as they were before. 

How are bones connected ? What is understood by symphysis ? 

What is diarthrosis ? Where is the marrow lodged ? 

What is synarthrosis ? What is its use in the system? 



ANAT03IICAL CLASS BOOK. 15 



BOXES OF THE SKULL. 



The head is divided, in the first place, into cranium 
and face. 

It is a curious fact, that no two heads are shaped pre- 
cisely alike ; indeed, there is nearly as much diversity 
in this respect as there are expressions of the face. 
During the early periods of infancy, the bones are so 
flexible, that the skull may be moulded into various 
forms, without injury to the brain. Many barbarous 
nations, from immemorial time, have practised the art of 
changing the natural shape of the heads of their children, 
either to give them some characteristic of the tribe to 
which they belong, or to render them more beautiful, 
according to their rude conceptions of that quality. Ob- 
servation on the natural differences presented in the 
skull first gave rise to the study of craniology, which has 
resulted in the science of phrenology. 

Calvaria is a term to express the top or convexity of 
the head. The forehead is the si?icip2tt, and the back 
part the occiput. 

FOREHEAD. Os frO?ltlS. 

Having remarked that the skull is composed of eight 
bones, it is only necessary to describe them individually, 
in a very general manner, The os frontis is a single 
bone in the adult, though in infancy it was in two pieces. 
Though thin and delicate, it is in two plates, whose flat 
surfaces have between them a porous space, called diploe, 
where the blood-vessels are safely lodged for nourishing 
it. Over each eye it throws out a protuberance, marked 
by the eyebrows; and within the orbit a thin, sheet- 
like process juts backward to support the brain from 
pressing on the globe of the eye. Between the two 
plates, on a vertical line with the nose, and just between 
the arched ridges, the two plates recede from each other, 
so far as to leave a large cavity, the frontal sinus, 
w T hich freely communicates with the two nostrils, although 

How is the skull subdivided? skull lodged ? 
At what age are the bones soft ? Where is the diploe ? 
What is the occiput ? How is the brain kept from press- 
Could the shape of the head be ing upon the globes of the eyes ? 
changed artificially ? Where is the frontal sinus, and 
How, and at what age ? what is its use ? 
Where are the blood-vessels of the Has the frontal sinus an outlet? 



16 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 



a partition extends from the nose up through the cham- 
ber. On this apartment seems to depend the strength of 
the voice. 



Fig. 3. 




Explanations of Fig. 3. 

Front view of the single 
bone constituting the forehead ; 

a, a, mark the place of the 
frontal sinus, or vocal cavity ; 

b, the temporal ridge; c, the 
nasal process, where the bones 
of the nose are joined ; e, e, the 
external angular processes ; f 
f the orbitar plates, above the 
eye, to sustain the brain. 



It is a drum-barrel, in effect, being for the purpose of 
reverberating the sound, by which its sonorous power is 
increased. While suffering from a severe cold, the cha- 
racter of the voice is changed, and it is usual to remark 
the person talks through the nose. This alteration, how- 
ever, is to be imputed to the closing up of the passage 
between the nose and sinus, which w 7 holly prevents the 
sound from penetrating the only spot in which its volume 
or tone can be increased. Snuff takers, by a vile habit, 
very much impair, and in protracted cases completely 
ruin, their voices, by obstructing the canal. 

wall, or parietal bones. — Osscl parietalia. 

These are on one side, convex, and concave on the 
other, and of a square figure. They lie on each side of 
the head, above the ears, and sustain the office of walls t 
small holes are discoverable through one or both of them,, 
through which veins return blood to the great canal with^ 
in the skull. 

occipital bone. — Os occipitis. 

Of all the cranial bones, this is the strongest, thickest^ 
and most compact. It needs to be so, inasmuch as many 

Why is the voice changed by a Where are the parietal bones ? 

cold? Which of the cranial bones is 

How does snuff-taking injure the strongest? 

voice ? 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 



17 



large muscles on the back of the neck are inserted into 
it. Its shape is very much like a skimmer, having one 
large hole in it, about an inch in diameter, through which 
the spinal marrow passes out from the brain, on its pas- 
sage down the spine, at the back and lower part of the 
skull. 

WEDGE, OR SPHENOID BONE. Os Sph<27loideS. 

Being entirely concealed, unless the skull is turned 
bottom upwards, some difficulty is found in learning its 
relations. Nearly all writers have compared it to a bat, 
with wide spread wings. Through it many nerves and 
vessels pass out; particularly the optic nerves, and those 
which supply the teeth in the under jaw. 

TEMPLE, OR TEMPORAL BONES. OsSCL tempOTUm. 

On these bones, there being one on each side, the ears 
are fixed. They stand between the os frontis, parietal 



Explanations of Fig. 4. 

a, the thin squamous portion of 
the temporal bone, joining the skull, 
on a line with the top of the ear ; 6, 
the zygomatic process, which meets 
the cheek bone ; c, a cavity in whicli 
the lower jaw is articulated ; d } the 
external opening of the ear ; e, the 
styloid process ; f, the vaginal pro- 
cess ; g } the mastoid process. 



and sphcenoid bones, reaching a little way up the tem- 
ple. In one part of these irregularly shaped bones the 
splendid apparatus of the organ of hearing is contained. 
Here is one quite prominent process, called the mastoid, 
which may be felt behind the ear, to which the muscle is 
attached that brings the head forward, as in bowing. 




Why has the occipital bone a large 

hole? 
Where is the sphenoid bone found ? 
What particular nerves pass 

2* 



through it? 

In what bone is the organ of hear- 
ing? 

Where is the temporal bone found ? 



18 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 



sieve, or ethmoid bone. — Os ethmoides. 

Because it is perforated with many holes, like a sieve, 
it has received its name. It lies horizontally, on a level 
with the eyes, over the nose, and has the front lohes of 
the brain resting upon it. Through the numerous ori- 
fices, fine threads of nerves, the olfactories, pass into the 
nasal cavities, to constitute the sense of smell. 

seams of the head, or sutures. 

All the bones of the head are interlocked by ragged 
edges, called sutures. When one overlaps another, as in 
the case of a part of the temporal over the parietal bone, 
it is termed a false suture. All the true sutures are zig- 
zag lines, seen on the top and sides of the head. 

One of these lines, reaching from one ear to the other, 
over the top of the skull, is the coronal suture; so called 
because an ornament was placed there by the ancients. 
The os frontis meets the ends of the parietal bones to 
make this suture. 

Fig. 5. 



Explanations of Fig. 5- 
a, a, the coronal suture ; b, 
sagittal suture? e, the lambdoi- 
. dal suture ; d, d, ossa trique- 
tra, small, ragged bones, occa- 
sionally found in some skulls, 
lying in the last-mentioned su- 
ture; e, e, portions of the tem- 
poral bone, overlapping the 
walls. 




On the back of the head, the occipital bone is united to 
a portion of the temple and the wall bones by the lamb* 



Through what bone do the olfacto- 
ry nerves pass out of the skull ? 
Why is the ethmoid bone so called ? 
What are sutures ? 
Are there false sutures 1 



How is a true suture to be designat- 
ed from a false one ? 
Point out the coronal suture. 
What bones unite to form it 1 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 19 

doidal suture, — which has its name from its resemblance 
to the Greek letter L. 

Between the parietal or wall bones, exactly on the 
highest point of the arch of the skull, on a line with the 
nose, and, consequently, equidistant from both ears, is the 
sagittal suture, — taking its name from a fanciful resem- 
blance to an arrow, lying between the bow and string. 

There are several other sutures, but it is not very im- 
portant to be particular in their description. At birth, 
the pieces composing the head are small, and imperfectly 
formed. As we increase in growth, the bones also in- 
crease in circumference, till their edges finally meet and 
form the suture. 

When infants labor under a dropsy of the brain, the 
accumulation of water is often so great, that the head is 
enormously enlarged. Such a vast collection could not 
be contained in the head if the bones had been united. 
Being only slightly attached at different places, or, per- 
haps, not at all, the membranes on the inside are put 
upon the stretch, and the bones, offering no resistance, are 
actually pressed out of place. An enlargement of the 
head never takes place after the sutures are formed, 
though there may be a collection of water in the cavities 
of the brain. 

In preparing the skulls of animals for a cabinet, the 
mode of opening the seams or sutures, that the shape of 
each bone may be seen, is usually to fill them with dry 
beans, perfectly full, and after having been placed in 
warm water, they swell and pry the whole apart. 

From infancy to the tenth and twelfth year, the sutures 
are imperfect ; but from that time to thirty-five and forty, 
they are distinctly marked; but in old age, they are near- 
ly obliterated. 

Blows should by no means be given children on the 
head, either by the hand, as in boxing the ears, or by 
sticks, ferules, and the like relics of the old and obsolete 
mode of school-government. The entire character and 
destiny of a child may be altered by a rap on the half- 
formed skull. 



Are there any other sutures on the Are they ever opened by disease ? 

cranium ? At what period of life are they per- 

Where is the lambdoidal suture ? fectly united 1 
Can the sutures be opened? 



20 ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 



THE BONES OF THE FACE. 

For the sake of order, these are separated into those 
constituting the upper and lower jaw. A minute descrip- 
tion of the thirteen bones of the upper jaw would be 
unnecessary ; yet some of the principal characteristics of 
a few of them will assist the student in obtaining a more 
exact knowledge of other parts. 

upper jaw bones. — Ossa maxillaria superiora. 

Many irregularly shaped small bones are united to the 
upper jaw, — as the palate, vomer, &c. The upper jaw- 
is in two pieces, on the arch of which are situated the 
teeth, in pits, called alveolar sockets, because they some- 
what resemble the cells of honeycomb. Just above the 
angles of the mouth a # hard protuberance is felt, where 
the cheek bone is met by it, which is hollow. Nearly 
half an ounce of fluid is sometimes secreted in it, in cases 
of severe inflammation, from diseases of the teeth. Not 
unfrequently the roots of the eye-teeth protrude quite 
into it. The name of this cavity is antrum. Its use, in 
common with the one described in the os frontis, is to 
assist in strengthening the voice. 

cheek bones. — Ossa malarum. 

These stand between the last mentioned protuberance 
and the outer angle of the eye, contributing to the forma- 
tion of the orbits. 

BONES OF THE NOSE. Ossa nasi. 

Two bones, which are merely convex, slender pieces, 
about an inch in length, meeting in the middle, form an 
arch, which thus enables the nose to resist hard blows. 
The partition is one bone, vomer, so ealled from its re- 
semblance to a ploughshare. Sometimes it is twisted 
more towards one side than the other, giving a crooked 

How many bones are there in the Is the protuberance of the cheek 

face 1 bone solid or hollow ? 

Is the upper jaw a single bone ? What bones assist in forming the 

What are the sockets called in orbits of the eyes? 

which the teeth are lodged ? Where is the bone called vomer 1 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 21 

or one-sided nose, materially influencing the expression 
of the face. 

Within each nostril there are two distinct bones, called 
turbinated, because rolled up like a roll of parchment. 
They are thin and porous, and wound up in the manner 
we find them, to occupy less room. On them is spread 
the olfactory nerves, in the form of a gossamer-web. By 
this contrivance surface is gained, without occupying too 
much space. The turbinated bones in a dog's, lion's, or 
tiger's nose, were it possible to spread them, would pre 
sent a broad surface, it is supposed, equal to several 
square feet; but by being rolled, like a scroll, they can 
be packed in the narrow canal of the nostril. Man, not 
being designed to be dependent particularly on the sense 
of smelling, has small internal nasal bones : quadrupeds, 
however, are wholly guided in the search and choice of 
food by this sense ; hence the complicated apparatus so 
much superior to our own. These turbinated bones are 
liable to disease, and are the seat of tumors called polypus 
of the nose. 

tear bones. — Ossa lachry media. 

There is one in each orbit, of the size of the finger 
nail, having a groove to conduct the tears into the nose. 

palate bones. — Ossa palatina. 

Quite on the back part of the roof of the mouth, these 
jut backward, towards the throat, having, in life, a cur- 
tain or valve suspended to them, which prevents fluids 
from rushing into the nose in the act of drinking. Usual- 
ly, accompanying the misfortune of hare-lip, these bones 
are wanting ; which accounts for the want of distinct 
articulate sounds in such persons. 

lower jaw bone. — Os maxillare inferius. 

All that is particularly interesting in this bone will be 
discovered in the plate, in which a vast many muscles 

Where are the turbinated bones ? By the sides of what bones are the 

How many of them ? tears conveyed to the nose ? 

Where is the cavity called antrum ? Where are the palate bones ? 

Of what use are the turbinated Under what circumstances are they 

bones ? sometimes wanting ? 




22 ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 

will be seen, connected with it. There is a canal, the 
size of a knitting needle, running through it, from one 
angle to the other, traversed by a nerve that gives a twig 
to the fang of each tooth, as it passes along. An artery 
also makes the same circuit, supplying the teeth with 
blood. 

bone of the tongue. — Os hyoides. 

It is situated in the muscles of the neck, quite in the 
upper and back part of the throat; its existence would 
hardly be suspected, were it not felt by pressing with the 
thumb and finger. 

Fig. 6. 

Explanations of Fig. 6. 

b, merely indicates the places where the arms, 
or processes, of this bone are united to the body. 
a } a, the arms. 



Its shape is much like the under jaw, or the letter U, 
having the diameter of a dollar. Besides being the origin 
of the tongue, moving up and down, as the tongue is 
moved, it serves another important office, of keeping the 
mouth of the windpipe open, like a hoop in the mouth of 
a sack. 

bones of the ear. — Ossicula auditus. 

Each of these, the malleus, incus , stapes, and os orbicu- 
lare, are minutely described in the article on the sense 
of hearing. 

bones of the spine. — Yertebrce. 

Twenty-four bones, similar in shape, but varying in 
size, laid one above the other, are collectively called the 
spine. Processes, or arms, extend out on each side, on a 
line with the limbs; and one projecting backward is the 
spinous, which gives the name to the whole chain. These 
points are the levers, by which the muscles move the 
whole, as a column. No one vertebra can be turned on 

What is the use of a canal in the What are the ossicula auditus ? 

under jaw bone ? How is the spine constituted ? 

Has the tongue a bone ? Why is the bony column called 

What is it called, and where found ? spine ? 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 



23 



its axis, but the entire series admits a twisting movement, 
as demonstrated in all the attitudes which the body as- 
sumes. On the back side of the body of the blocks the 
union of the three arms forms a ring, and the twenty- 
four present a canal, through which the spinal marrow 
passes down, giving off nerves between every two bones, 
to go to the ribs and muscles on the sides. 



Fig. 7. 



Explanations of Fig. 7. 
This shows the connexion of 
the blocks or vertebrae, con- 
stituting the backbone, or spine. 
All the lines, indicated by 
figures, from ] to 24, indicate 
nerves, which come out between 
the bones, from the spinal mar- 
row. Fig. 9 is the place of the 
stomach ; 20, the liver ; 24, the 
kidneys ; 18, the spleen ; 23, the 
membrane, around the border 
* 5 of which the intestines adhere; 
11 and 12 is the bone called os 

9 sacrum, which, by beinsf pro- 

-17 longed in quadrupeds, is the 

"---.18 tail. Man being upright, the 

-19 bone is short, and curved, and 

thus holds up the organs, which, 




ftlil 24 ky. their weight, would other- 



wise have a tendency to fall 
through the bottom of the pel- 
vis. 



Those of the neck are less confined than those of the 
back or loins, in consequence of the processes being more 
horizontal; otherwise there would be an inability to carry 
the head towards either shoulder. 

Between these vertebrae there is an intervening sub- 



Has the spine any motion ? 



24 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 




stance, exceedingly elastic, convex on both sides, thick in 
the centre, and thin at the edges, which is analogous to 
cushions, to prevent a sudden jar in our movements. 
This is the intervertebral substance, rather compressible, 
yet elastic. After being in an erect position considerable 
time, the superincumbent weight presses them down 
thinner ; so that a person is shorter at night, after fatigue 
in walking, than in the morning, after the intervertebral 
pieces have restored themselves to their original condi- 
tion. 

Fig. 8. 

Explanations of Fig. 8. 
This is an accurate drawing of one 
of the bones of the spine, at the 
neck: a, is the body of the bone; b, 
the spinous process, or handle, which 
gives the name of spine to the whole 
column; c, c, the transverse pro- 
cesses, to which the muscles adhere, 
producing motion ; d, d, round holes, 
through the arms of the bone, for 
safely lodging an artery, which car- 
ries blood to the brain; e, e, the 
upper, and f,,f, the under surfaces, 
which make a joint with the blocks 
above and below it ; g, the hole through which the spinal marrow, or 
pith of the back, passes in safety from the head, through the whole 
chain of twenty-four vertebrae. 

A person becomes round-shouldered, as the expression 
is, in consequence of the elasticity of the front edge of 
these pads being overcome. A permanent stoop or bend 
of the back is the result. Old age also gradually weak- 
ens the elastic power, and therefore aged men are often 
crooked, infirm, and shorter than in their youth. Dis- 
tortions of the body, producing deformity, are referable 
to the want of spring, or proper elasticity, in these 
cushions. 

The topmost of all the bones of the spine is called the 
atlas, because it supports the head, as Atlas was fabled to 
support the globe. It is a ring of bone, without a body, 
which distinguishes it from all below it. With the skull 
it forms a joint, allowing the head to move forward and 
backward, but in no other manner. 

What is the intervertebral sub- At what time are we tallest ? 

stance ? Why are we shorter at night than 

Is it compressible ? in the morning ? 

Why do some persons become round- What name has the first bone of 

shouldered ? the spine ? 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 25 

Joining the atlas is the dentatus, or tooth-like bone, 
having its name from the resemblance which a particular 
portion of it bears to a tooth. In a full-grown man the 
process is about half an inch high, above the body of the 
bone, and smooth, jutting up into the atlas. Around 
this pivot the head rolls. If, by any sudden jerk, the 
head is thrown too violently back or forward, the dentatus 
may be forced from its place ; which would be a disloca- 
tion, or breaking of the neck, in popular language. 
When criminals are executed by hanging, the process is 
commonly torn from its place, presses on the spinal mar- 
row, which, on its way down the back, passes by the 

f of it. and death immediately ensues. 

All the remaining twenty-two separate bones, of which 
the spine is constructed, are called simply vertebra?. 

RIBS AND BOXES OF THE CHEST. CaSi 

Twenty-four ribs, seven of which are in contact with 
the spine behind and the breast bone in front, form the 
thorax or chest. Each of the ribs has a regular joint, to 
allow the chest to be enlarged and diminished in breath- 
ing. A vulgar notion exists that males have one rib less 
than females, owing to the circumstance of one of them 
having been taken from the side of Adam, for the creation 
of woman : — the number is exactly alike in both sexes. 

breast boxe. — Sternum. 

The siermniu or breast bone, in the front wall of the 
chest, is narrow and spongy, not far from an inch and 
a quarter wide and ten inches long, reaching from the 
throat to the pit of the stomach. 

Several pieces of bone are joined together to constitute 
it, but the lowest point, which is flexible, is the most 
interesting. It can be felt with the hand. It is floating, 
as it were, in the flesh, being flexible and yielding to 
pressure. As we advance in years, it becomes ossified, 

Where is the dentatus ? With what bones are their extremi- 

How do the movements of these ties united ? 

two bones differ ? Describe the location of the ster- 

How many ribs ? num. 

Are there joints to the ribs ? Is it a single bone, or constituted 

Have females more ribs than males? of several distinct pieces ? 

3 



26 ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 

and if distorted or forced from its natural place in 
youth, produces the most painful and alarming conse- 
quences in age. 

If, for example, a person when seated bends the body 
habitually forward, it eventually bends the point of the 
sternum inward, where it will finally remain. The con- 
sequence is, the capacity of the chest is diminished, and 
diseases of the lungs, among a catalogue of other mala- 
dies, may result from it. Children should be warned of 
this liability to disease, before a habit is formed that is 
formidable when confirmed. 

This never becomes solid like other bones, even in ex- 
treme old age. Between its perpendicular sides, as seen 
in the plate, and the front end of the rib, a strip of carti- 
lage is interposed, a kind of substance which is familiarly 
known by the name of gristle. The bony wall therefore, 
over the heart and lungs, is decidedly the weakest part of 
the frame. 

There is a radical defect in the seats of school-rooms 
in this country. There should be a convexity behind, 
to fit the hollow of the back. The seat would be more 
comfortable, and prevent the bones of the chest from 
being cramped down and binding the digestive organs. 

Under what circumstances is it frequently impaired ? 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 



2? 



Fig. 9. 




Explanations of Fig. 9. 
A the place where the collar bone is joined ; 
C where the first rib is articulated; c, d, e,f, 
£■, show the number of pieces which are united 
into one : the ensiform cartilage, or tip of the 
sternum, bent out of place very frequently, 
to the gTeat detriment of the individual, is 
marked h. 



Very small children, in schools, become excessively 
weary, after sitting a little time on stiff benches — are 
sleepy, and can scarcely be kept awake. This is nature's 
mode of seeking relief from the pressure and gravity of 
the chest, which is confining both bones and muscles. 
They should certainly be permitted, either to have a re- 
cumbent posture, which is thus indicated, or they should 
be kept but a very little time in one position. Malforma- 
tion of the bones, narrow chests, coughs, ending in con- 
sumptions and death in middle life, beside a multitude of 
minor ills, have often had their origin irrthe school-room. 



BONES OF THE LOINS. 



Five of the last vertebrae, which are the largest and 
strongest of the spine, contribute to the formation of the 
loins or lumbar region. 



How many bones in the lumbar Are the lumbar vertebrae different 



region i 



in the structure from others 2 



28 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 




Fig. 10. 

Explanations of Fig. 10. 
This is a drawing of one of the 
lumbar vertebrae, — in the small 
of the back, in common language. 
It is much larger, and contains 
considerable more substance 
than those of the back or neck ; 
and it requires to be so, as it 
necessarily supports the weight 
of the body above : a is the body ; 
b b the surfaces by which it forms 
a joint with the block above ; c c 
a similar surface, to meet the 
one below ; d d the side arms or 
processes, to which the strong 
muscles of the back are fasten- 
ed. 

bones of the hips. — Osscl innominata. 

Three bones, the os sacrum and the two ossa innomina- 
ta or hips, are so united together as to form a kind of 
horizontal ring; within this ring, many important organs 
are found. On the outside of each of the broad, thin hip 
bones, a deep socket is seen, in which the heads of the 
thigh bones are articulated. 

Tig. 11. 

Explanations of Fig. 1 1 . 

This is a drawing of the lower 
part of the hip bone, or os in- 
nominatum, in which is seen 
d the head of the thigh bone, tied 
c into its socket by a short round 
b cord, to keep it always in place. 
Were it not for this curious 
provision, by a thousand un- 
f guarded movements the hip 
would be thrown out of joint. 
a is the membrane which co- 
vers the joint ; b the cord that 
keeps the bone in its socket ; c 
the socket in the hip bone; d 
a rim of the socket, to deepen 
it, and /the thigh bone head; — 
e a binding ligament; 6 the 
point of bone on which we sit. 

6 
BONES OF THE SHOULDER. Scapulce. 

Lying horizontally, between the top of the breast bone 
and the tip of the shoulder, above the joint, is the clavicle^ 
or collar bone, shaped something like an italic s. Its use 




Where are the ossa innominata? 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 



29 




is to keep the arms from sliding forward, towards the 
breast; and it is also useful in sustaining burdens, as 
when a basket is carried on the shoulder. Its name is 
said to have been derived from its resemblance to an 
ancient key. 



Explanations of 
Fig. 12. 

In this cut is seen 
the union of the 
shoulder-blade, col- 
lar bone, breast bone 
and the shoulder 
joint. These are 
detached from the 
body ; hence the 
view is a front one. 
A portion of the col- 
lar bone of the right 
side is seen also, — 
all the others being on the left side. The figures from 1 to 11 indicate 
the ligaments which keep them united, when the muscles are dissected 
away. 

Shozdder -blade is a familiar name of a thin, broad, 
triangular bone, behind each shoulder, termed scapula. 
At the highest angle, a hooked process stands out, which 
makes a roof, as it were, over the shoulder joint, to defend 
it from violence by the pressure of burdens. At its root, 
and necessarily on its under side, is a depression called 
the glenoid cavity, in which the head of the shoulder is 
articulated, to make the joint. The shoulder blade does 
not touch the ribs, nor has it any attachment with any 
other bone than the clavicle, belonging to the chest. It 
lies on a cushion of a muscle, and is moved in various 
directions in every motion of the arm. If the arm is 
raised, carried either forward or backward, down or up, 
the motion of the shoulder blade may be distinctly felt 
through the skin. 

bones of the arm. — Qssa humeri* 

Os humeri and os brachii are names given by the 
books to the arm bone. At the upper end is a large ball* 
that rolls in the socket of the shoulder-blade; and at the 
other extremity it is flattened to receive the fore-arm- 



Point out the place of the scapula and its relations. 

3* 



30 



ANATOMICAL CLASS HOOK. 



with which it makes a gin gly mils or hinge joint, admit- 
ting only of two motions, flexion and extension, similar 
to motions described by a door, swinging on its hinges* 
To this bone a principal part of the muscles are attached 
which produce the movements of the limb. 



Fig. 13. 




Explanation of Fig. 13. 

Short ligaments of the elbow 
are here demonstrated : the won- 
der is, how the elbow joint can 
- ever be dislocated, without en- 
tirely ruining the whole ligamen- 
2 tary arrangement. The figures 

4 from 1 to 4 not only give the 

locality of each ligament, but 
even the figure. 



BONES OF THE FORE -ARM. Radii et TJlnCB. 

Two bones are in the fore-arm, between the elbow and 
wrist, lying side by side : that on the upper side, on a 
line with the thumb, is the radius, so named from it& 
resemblance to the spoke of a wheel. It is sometimes 
termed the manubrium manus, or handle of the hand, 
because the hand is fastened to its lower end, and its 
"upper one has but little or nothing to do with the compo- 
sition of the elbow joint. The radius rolls to and fro, 
carrying the hand with it, while its fellow, ulna or cubit, 
so named because it was used for a measure, is curiously 
articulated to the elbow, but does not reach the hand. 

On these two bones a vast number of complicated 
muscles take their rise, which produce the multitude of 
short, quick or strong motions of the hand and fingers. 

When the palm of the hand faces backward, it being 
supposed that the arm is pendulous by the side, it is call- 
ed pronation. When it faces forward, the thumb being 
outside, it is supination. Those muscles which produce 
these movements are pronators and supinators. 

bones of the wrist. — Ossa car pi. 

Eight little bones, whose shapes cannot well be describ- 
ed, placed in two rows, form the wrist. On the back side 

Is there more than one bone be- How many bones in the fore-arm? 

tween the shoulder and elbow? What do you understand by prona- 
Give its name. tion ? 

What sort of a joint has the upper What by supination? 

extremity of the arm bone ? How many bones in the wrist? 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 



31 



Fig. 14. 




Explanation of Fig. 14. 

1 This diagram shows the connexion 
of the little bones of the carpus or wrist, 

b with the two long bones of the fore- 
arm. 1 the ulna; 2 radius; 3 sca- 
phoides ; 4 lunare ; 5 cuneiforme ; 6 

a pisi forme; 7 trapezium ; 8 trapezi- 

e odes ; 9 magnum. The letters mark 

4 the ligaments which tie them together. 

6 

5 



10 



they are arched, actually reminding one of irregular sized 
stones, so put together as to resemble a piece of masonry. 
On the inside they make a canal, through which the 
tendons of the muscles glide along to the fingers. 



Explanation of Fig. 15. 

Another plan of the bones of 
the wrist, showing them placed 
in two rows. This is a back 
view of the carpus of the right 
hand, a the boat-shaped bone; 
b the half moon shaped; c the 
wedge-shaped ; d the pea-shap- 
ed; which make the upper row, 
joining the fore-arm. In the 
second row are the four others, 
which are united by a joint to th& 
palm of the hand. 

Their names are navicular e, lunare, cuneiforme, orbi- 
cular e, trapezium, trapeziodes, magnum, and unciforme. 

bones of the palm. — Metacarpus. 

A detailed account of the shape and size of the bones 
of the metacarpus*, or palm, would seem to be unneces- 
sary, as every person can ascertain their number and 
relations by feeling his own hands ; the plan, however, is 
inserted. 




Explain the metacarpus. 



32 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK, 




Explanation of Fig. 16. 
Four metacarpal bones, side by side, 
precisely as they are placed, and of 
the true shape, Forming the palm of 
the hand, are seen in this figure. The 
metacarpal bone of the thumb is seen 
in Fig. 17, marked a. 



}T\g. 17. 





Explanation of Fig. 17. 

There are but three bones in the thumb, which are larger 
than those in the fingers, because it was designed to op- 
pose them, and therefore possesses a structure quite differ- 
ent. To these three, five muscles are attached, a, b, e, 
are the three, but it should be recollected that a really be- 
longs to the metacarpus, so that 



Only two bones exist in the thumb, but there are three 
in each finger, — collectively called phalanges, being four- 
teen in number. 



Explain the phalanges. large ? 

How many phalanges ? How many muscles belong to the 

How many bones in the thumb ? thumb? 

Why are the bones of the thumb How many bones in the carpus 9 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 



33 



Fiff. 19. 




Explanation of Fig. 18. 

Twelve bones, as exhibited in 
this plan, constitute the fingers 
of one hand. They are separat- 
ed from each other, that the ex- 
act form of the extremities of 
each may be seen, a the first 
bone of the little finger, b the 
b second, c the third : the same 
letters point out the three, also, 
composing the index, or fore 
finger. 



Fig. 19. 




Explanation of Fig. 19. 
Here is presented a back view 
of all the bones of the hand, as 
they are connected with the eight 
little bones of the wrist. Each 
bone is so distinctly represented, 
that a very young child may un- 
derstand the arrangement. 



How many bones are there in the Point out the carpus, 
whole hand ? 

Note. The extensor muscles are placed on the back side of the hand 
and fingers, and the flexors inside. 



34 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK, 



Fig. 20 




Explanation of Fig. 
20. 
All the bones of 
the arm, fore-arm, and 
hand, are here exhibit- 
ed in connexion, with 
reference to impress- 
ing it on the mind, 
after having read a 
short description of 
the individual parts 
of the upper extremi- 
ty, a is the head of 
the arm bone, articu- 
lated to the shoulder ; 
b the joint or elbow, 
formed by the ulna 
and lower end of the 
arm ; c the shaft of 
the os humeri or arm ; 
d the radius or handle 
of the hand, united, 
solely, to the wrist; 
e the ulna, which 
alone forms with the 
arm the joint. 



BONES OF THE INFERIOR EXTREMITIES. OsSO, femOTZS. 

First, the os femoris, or thigh bone, is the largest and 
longest in the skeleton : it needs to be, as it sustains the 
whole body. The ball, by which it is articulated in the 
deep socket of the hip bone, appears to be at the end of a 
branch, standing out at a considerable angle from the 
shaft, as seen in the engraving of the skeleton. This is 
the neck of the femoris. Its lower end, or condyle, is 
quite large, to make a part of the knee joint. All the 
muscles assisting in running, walking, or dancing, are 
variously connected with it. 

BONES OF THE LE£. Tib(B. 

Tibia is the scientific name of the shin bone, because 
it was thought to look like a pipe. United with the con- 
dyle of the thigh bone, assisted only by the kneepan, it 
forms the knee joint. 



Where is the largest bone in the 

body? 
What muscles, particularly, are 



attached to the femoris ? 
Has the leg two bones, like tne 
fore-arm ? 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 



35 



At the ankle it is admirably fitted to the astragalus, to 
permit flexion and extension of the foot, as in walking-. 
A piece or splint, called malleolar process, slides down by 
the side of the joint, to increase its strength. The pro- 
cess may be felt, being under the skin like a knob, on 
the inner side of the ankle. 

This joint is very securely arranged, to prevent luxa- 
tions ; as it merely moves in two directions, backward 
and forward, nothing short of a degree of violence that 
injures the bones can materially affect it. Beside its 
ligaments, the tendons of many muscles contribute to its 
security, strength, and perfection. 



Fig. 21. 




3 52 

Explanation of Fig. 21. 

These three plans show how the two bones of the leg are united above 
the ankle joint. 1,2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 7, 6 mark the ligaments which bind them 
firmly. 

Outside of the tibia is a long, slender bone, the fibula, 
lying on the side of the head of the tibia, but having 
nothing to do with the knee joint; it passes down past 
the ankle joint, giving the same security to it that is 
afforded by the malleolar process of the tibia, on the 
inside. Between the two bones all the muscles — and 
they are numerous- — arise which go to the foot and toes. 



What is the use of the malleolar pro- Where is the bone found called the 

cess in the economy of the joint ? tibia ? 

Where is the fibula ? How many bones enter into the 
What is the use of this bone ? composition of the knee joint ? 



36 ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 

BONES OF THE INSTEP. OsSCL tarsi. 

Five bones are found in the tarsus or instep, one of 
which is nearly all given to the heel. An arch is formed 
by the other four, similar to the wrist, giving a convexity 

Fig. 22. 



Explanation of Fig . 22. 

By this diagram the skeleton of the foot will be clearly understood, 
even without the aid of the bones. Twenty-six bones are here so cu- 
riously grouped together, that an arch is made between the heel and ball 
of the great toe : — a, shows the five bones of the metatarsus ; d, e,f,g", 
and h point out the five bones of the instep or tarsus; 6, c, and i, indicate 
the phalanges or toes. 

to the top of the foot. On the under side, in the sole of 
the foot, all the flexor muscles of the toes are found. 
This structure conduces to the elasticity of the step, and 
the weight of the body is transmitted to the ground by 
the spring of the arch, in a way to prevent the injury of 
numerous organs by a sudden jar. Each one of them 
has a specific name ; viz. os calcis, the heel ; astragalus, 
being part of the ankle joint, named from its likeness to a 
block used by the Greeks in playing a game of chance ; 
cuboides, or square bone ; naviculare, the boat-shaped ; 
and cuneiforme, or the wedge-shaped bone. 

As in the hand, between the instep and toes is the 
metatarsus, in which are five bones, placed like the sticks 
of a fan, articulated with the first row of the bones of the 
toes. 

Precisely as the short blocks of bones are arranged in 

How many bones in the instep ? Name the small bones of the instep. 

Do the bones of the foot constitute Where are the flexors of the foot 
an arch ? lodged ? 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 



37 



the thumb, so they are in the great toe, being, however, 
proportionably larger. There are two in this and three 
\n each of the four remaining toes ; the whole of which 
are phalanges, being fourteen in all. 




Explanation of Fig. 23. 

This represents the bones of one toe, as 
they stand in relation to each other: — a 
the metatarsal part, concealed in the mus- 
cles, and bed trie three phalanges. 

Fig. 24 is the skeleton of the great toe : 
a the metatarsal portion, and 6 c the pha- 
langes. 



Sesamoid bones, considerably larger than in the thumb, 
are discoverable on the under side of the first joint of the 
large toe. 

INVESTING MEMBRANE OF THE BONES. Periosteum. 

Over every bone is a thin, white covering, the perioste- 
tcm, closely investing it. Its use is to conduct the nutri- 
tious vessels and nerves into the substance of the bone. 
It serves also for the attachment of the muscles, which 
could not otherwise be fastened to the smooth surface. 
Though apparently insensible, it is amply furnished with 
nerves, arteries, and veins, but its vitality is very low. 



What and where is the metatar- 
sus ? 
What are sesamoid bones ? 
Of what use are they ? 

4 



What do you understand by perios- 
teum? 
Is it particularly necessary ? 
How many phalanges in the foot ? 



38 ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 

(GROWTH OF THE BONES ; OT OsteOgOTty. 

By this term is understood the formation and growth 
of the bones. From infancy till the age of about twenty 
years, they are constantly undergoing changes. In fact, 
they are completely renewed many times in the course 
of a long life. No particle of matter can long remain at 
rest in a living system. When one portion is removed 
another is put in its place ; so that, by the circulation 
of the blood, the greatest activity prevails, even among 
these earthy portions of the body. 

The arteries carry whatever is necessary to promote 
the growth or to repair the waste of the system. They 
also fashion each organ, give shape to every bone, and 
sustain and furnish them with vitality. 

Bones have nerves, but they are small, and only con- 
nect them with the other more highly organized parts. 
When they are diseased they become painful as the 
muscles ; but in health they are insensible. 

As a whole, the skeleton is merely a frame, on which 
are suspended, or attached, all the organs of motion. It 
is full of joints; and each bone is a lever to be acted 
upon by the power of a muscle. This, which in most of 
the large animals is in the centre, in many of the smaller 
tribes is on the outside, in the form of a shell. Examples 
may be found in the turtle and lobster, beetles, &c. 

Such a remarkable piece of mechanism as the skeleton, 
even divested of a thousand important, wonder-working 
accompaniments, exhibits in the clearest light the good- 
ness and wisdom of God. The fashion of each bone, 
and, above all, the skilful and nice adjustment of the 
whole, and their subserviency to the different fibres and 
tubes which are intimately connected with this compli- 
cated, yet perfect piece of architecture, must strike a 
reflecting mind most forcibly* 

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MALE ANT> FEMALE SKELETONS* 

Were it true that men have a deficient number of ribs, 
there would be no difficulty in designating the skeletons 

Explain the definition of the term Are they nourished by blood ? 

osteogony. In what classes of animals is the 

Are the bones ever renewed ? skeleton outside instead of being 

What vessels fabricate the bones ? clothed with flesh ? 

Have bones sensibility? Are the bones levers? 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 39 

of different sexes. To an inexperienced eye it will al- 
ways be a nice point to determine one from the other. 

The skeleton of the male is larger and heavier than 
that of the female. The surfaces of the bones are rough- 
er, as the muscles which moved them are more strongly 
developed, and capable of exerting more power than those 
of the other. The head of the female, on an average, is 
smaller than the male ; the sutures are less notched ; and 
the cavities in the bone of the forehead and upper jaw 
bones are considerably smaller. All the limbs are more 
delicately and slenderly formed. Processes are less 
prominent, and depressions are comparatively more su- 
perficial. 

A still stronger difference, however, is found in the 
pelvis, — a kind of arch, or bony circle, bounded by the 
hip bones. In females the pelvis is much broader than 
in men, and the hips are spread more outwardly. Lastly, 
the necks of the thigh bones are longer, giving them the 
appearance of being particularly broad across the hips. 
Thus far only females are constructed, in the frames of 
their bodies, to differ very essentially from the male. 
The breadth of the pelvis, in connexion with the pecu- 
liarity of a long neck to the thigh bones^ brings the knees 
nearer together- 

If two skeletons, one of a male, the other of a female, 
are suspended, it will be noticed that the lower extremi- 
ties of the male would be nearly parallel to each other ; 
whereas, in the other, the knees will approximate so 
nearly as to touch. Another difference consists in the 
capacity of the chest : one is small, and the other is large. 
The bones of the feet and hands are large in men ; but 
in the female they are slender, smooth, and delicate. 
Finally, the height and weight would have an influence 
upon our judgment in deciding upon the character of 
either, 

DISTORTIONS TO WHICH THE BONES AHE LIABLE. 

Many injuries of the bones are induced by the careless- 
ness of nurses, in infancy and the first years of childhood, 
which have a permanent influence on the figure and 

How does the male differ from the How may injury of the bones be 
female skeleton 1 produced ? 



40 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 



health in after life. Females especially, by the caprice 
of fashion, are the subjects of many alarming diseases, 
arising from distortions of the bones. One of the most 
serious affections, a distortion of the spine, is much oftener 
found in females than in males. Boys generally lead an 
active life, enjoying a free exercise of all their limbs in 
various pastimes. Girls, by a perverse custom, are 
taught that they were made for the house, and not for 
the open air. Their employments are therefore com- 
monly of a sedentary kind, confining them to one posture 
many hours at a time. Added to this, which is enough 
to enfeeble any constitution, instead of naturally expand- 
ing, to give full play to the lungs, the chest is kept from 
enlarging its capacity, by stays and closely fitted dresses. 
The ribs are pressed inwardly, the spine prevented from 
having motion, the lungs cramped; and consumptions, 
inflammations, and other oftentimes incurable maladies, 
are the certain results. 

Notwithstanding the odium cast upon the Chinese for 
their ridiculous fancy for the small feet of their females, 
which are prevented from growing by being compressed 
in iron shoes, it is not so cruel nor absurd as the practice 
among the females of all civilized countries, at the present 
day, of preventing the growth of the waist. 

Physicians, philanthropists, and philosophers, have each 
exerted themselves to awaken an interest, to arouse 
females to a sense of their danger; but it has been to 
little purpose. Though seriously deformed, they cannot 
be persuaded to abandon a custom, which, in their 
apprehension, improves their otherwise beautiful forms. 

Young ladies require nearly as much exercise as boys, 
but of a less violent character. They require loose, 
easy clothing, that the bones concerned in the formation 
of the apartment in which is placed the vital apparatus, 
may be- free and unrestrained. 

Do females require as much exer- the chest most frequent in fe- 

cise as the other sex ? males ? 

Why should clothing be loose and Do boys ever suffer from distortion 

easy to the body ? of the bones ? 
Why are distortions of the bones of 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 



41 



Fig. 25. 




. Contracted chest. 



An outline is here presented of the 
chest of a female, to show the condition 
of the bones, as they appear after death, 
in every woman who has habitually worn 
staj r s. 

All the false ribs, from the lower end 
of the breast bone, are unnaturally cramp- 
ed inwardly towards the spine, so that 
the liver, stomach, and other digestive 
organs in the immediate vicinity, are 
pressed into such small compass that 
their functions are interrupted, and, in 
fact, all the vessels, bones, and viscera, on which the individual is con- 
stantly depending for health, are more or less distorted and enfeebled. 

Whatever has a tendency to confine those parts of the 
frame which were designed for motion, positively tends to 

Fig. 26. 

Skeleton of a well formed female 
chest. 
By comparing the accompanying 
plan of a well developed and naturally 
proportioned female chest, with the 
frigntful skeleton appended to the 
preceding note, the difference is strik- 
ingly apparent. Here is breadth, 
space for the lungs to act in ; and the 
short ribs are thrown outwardly, in- 
stead of being curved and twisted 
down towards the spine, by which 
ample space is afforded for the free 
action of all those organs which in 
the other frame were too small to sus- 
tain life. The first may be regarded 
as the exact shape and figure of a 
short-lived female ; and this may be 
contemplated as an equally true model of the frame of another, who, 
so far as life depends upon a well-formed body, would live to a good old 




the production of disease ; it is therefore of the highest 
interest to the well-being of our species that an elementa- 
ry knowledge of the structure of the human body should 
be taught, and everywhere understood, that precautions 
may be taken to avoid a threatening danger. Physical 
education is not only too much neglected, but, what is 
still more lamentable, scarcely appreciated in this country. 
If parents, in the first place, and instructers in the second,, 
studied more the education of the body, the intellectual 
faculties would be more fully and energetically developed* 
Above all, the young should be instructed correctly in the 
knowledge of the laws of animal life. 
4# 



42 ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 

The lungs, too, suffer; and in those cases, which are 
ninety in a hundred, where stays have been laced or* 
in very early life, before the ribs have become perfectly 
ossified, the chest is never developed ; it never assumes 
the form which it would have had, were it not for this 
mechanical restraint ; consequently, for want of capacity, 
or, in other words, for the want of room, the lungs are 
too small for the requisitions of the body; they cannot 
oxygenate the blood, — an indispensable vital process. 

Corset-boards are quite as reprehensible, though the 
injuries to which they give rise are less apparent in the 
beginning. The busk operates almost exclusively on the 
sternum or breast bone, which is easily bent out of its 
original position at its lower extremity. 

By a constant pressure of an inelastic board, the lower 
end of the sternum, which juts down into the abdominal 
muscles two or three inches, is forced inward, and be- 
coming ossified in that direction, is productive of serious 
injury to the stomach, which lies just behind it. 

A multitude of painful and protracted diseases, by 
which thoughtless females, in this age, are hurried to an 
early grave, have their origin in this horrible custom of 
wearing stays. Thousands upon thousands of young 
ladies are the yearly victims, even in the United States, 
to consumption, which is wholly referable to this fashion- 
able taste of conforming to a practice which has for its: 
object the improvement of the female form ; as though the 
Creator, in constructing the most beautiful work of his. 
creation, neglected to give that finishing process, which 
they imagine themselves to have discovered, and which, 
can alone be satisfactory to the sex. 

While we lament the tolerance of: an evil in our 
country that sweeps the young, the beautiful, and the 
intelligent to the tomb before the summer of life has fairly 
commenced, we scarcely indulge the hope of a reforma- 
tion : pernicious customs which are preserved by common 
consent, cannot be easily overcome by persuasion or ar- 
gument. 

If, notwithstanding the many illustrations given of the 
sad effects of stays and busks, by various philanthropic 
writers, mothers and nurses manifest no disposition to be 

Do the lungs ever suffer from dis- How can the breast bone be dis- 
tortions of the bones ? torted ? 



AXATOaTICAL class book. 43 

influenced by their opinions and advice, the duty most 
certainly devolves on all public teachers, in a delicate and 
appropriate manner, to instruct their pupils in the first 
principles of preserving health, by explaining their morbid 
effects. 

One of the first lessons in physical education should 
be to strip from the pupil every unnecessary restraint 
upon the body and limbs ^ 

TEETH. 

In manhood there are thirty- two teeth, divided in the. 
following manner: 

8 Incisores — or cutting teeth. 

4 Cuspidati, — or canine teeth, being pointed. 

8 Bicuspides, — or two-pointed double teeth. 

8 Molares, — or grinding teeth. 

4 Dentes sapientiee, — or wisdom teeth. 

The first set, or milk teeth, are twenty in number^ 
appearing from time to time, from the age of about ten 
months to three years, when they are all developed. 
There are, however, many variations as respects the 
period of cutting them, depending on constitutional causes.. 
When the roots are absorbed the tops fall off from the 
gums, and the second set are protruded. The jaws, in 
the mean time, become longer and broader, which allows 
B3om for an increased number, of a greater size. 

In the centre of each tooth is a cavity, in which the 
pulp of a nerve lies, and which is the seat of pain, when, 
the body of the tooth is so decayed as to expose it to the 
air, or bring it in contact with food. Each root is also 
hollow, allowing the fibre of a nerve to communicate with 
the nerves of the jaw ; and blood-vessels also run in by 
the side of it, to nourish the whole. 

The enamel is the outside, hard crust, which gives the 
requisite finish to the tooth, and renders it strong enough 
for mastication. This enamel is much thinner on the 
teeth of some persons than on others, and scaling off, the 
bony part of the teeth, being exposed, soon falls into dis- 
ease by the contact and influence of various kinds of food, 
drink, heat and colds. 

How many teeth in the human Why is the tooth furnished, with a 

jaws ? cavity ? 

How are they anatomically divid- How are the teeth protected ex- 

ed ? ternally 1 
What are ilk teeth?. 



44 ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 

Acids of all kinds are particularly injurious to the 
teeth, because they act chemically on the lime contained 
in the enamel, destroying the connexion of the particles, 
and thus ultimately exposing the nerve. Hot drinks are 
also pernicious. 

Individuals Jiving on moderately cool food, and drink- 
ing cold water simply, preserve their teeth in all their 
original beauty and goodness to an advanced period. 

Sugar is not destructive to the teeth, as generally sup- 
posed : slaves on sugar plantations possess the finest 
sets, uninjured, apparently, to extreme old age. 

Cold water only is advisable, applied with a soft brush, 
for keeping them white, clean, and in a healthful condi- 
tion. The various dentifrices, salt, ashes, charcoal, &c, 
actually injure them by attrition in the application, and 
should never, therefore, be used. Chewing and smoking 
tobacco is very destructive to the teeth. To youth these 
few practical considerations are worth their recollection. 

When the teeth are all extracted, the sockets which 
supported them are absorbed; and hence the jaws are 
narrower ; which explains the reason why in old age the 
mouth is smaller and the lips sunken : it also accounts 
for the difficulty with which words are articulated. The 
tongue, being compressed, moves with less freedom, and 
distinct enunciation becomes extremely difficult. 



LIGAMENTS. 

SYNDESMOLOGY. 



The skeleton would have been in a very imperfect 
condition if so many bones were not firmly connected 
together. The bands and straps which connect them 
are called ligaments^ and syndesmology is the study or 
doctrine of them. 

Are acids injurious to the teeth ? the extraction of the teeth? 

Is sugar destructive to them ? Are the ligaments of much impor- 

What application is most approved tance ? 

of for tneir preservation ? Define the term syndesmology. 
What becomes of the sockets aftex 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 



45 



Such is the tenacity of the ligaments, that the bones 
are sometimes fractured, before they are torn from their 
points of adhesion. 

Ligaments, like the bones themselves, are nearly in- 
sensible, white, and shining, and commonly short, thin, 
and tough. Where the ends of two bones meet, as in 
the construction of a joint, their situation is maintained 
by ligaments running from one to the other. Possessing 
but a very slight degree of elasticity, the joints do not 
become loose, unless extension is maintained a very long 
time. 

Were it not for ligaments, the bones of our bodies 
would fall down by their own weight. A natural skele- 
ton is one on which they have been preserved, with 
reference to showing the precise connexion of the bones. 

Fig. 27. 



Explanation of Fig. 27. 
e, d, are the crucials or cross ligaments, 
remarkable in structure and office ; f t the 
tendon of an extensor muscle ; c, the 
head of the Jibula, joining the side of the 
shin bone ; a, the articulating surface of 
the lower end of the thigh bone, covered by 
the kueepan ; b, refers to the broad liga- 
ment, turned down from the joint to ex- 
pose the cross ligaments, having the knee 
pan on it. 



Some ligaments keep a joint from bending the wrong 
way. The knee would be the weakest, and most liable 
to get out of order, of any joint, were it not for its nu- 
merous ligaments. 

Within this joint two ligaments are so arranged, that 
they cross each other, like the legs of a saw-horse, com- 
pletely preventing the leg from being carried too far 
backward or forward. The lateral ligaments guard 
against dislocations on either side. 




Have ligaments sensibility ? the joints of the body 1 

How are natural skeletons made ? What prevents the knee from being 

What have ligaments to do with a weak articulation ? 



46 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 



One single round ligament fastened on the head of the 
thigh bone ties it into the centre of its socket, keeping it 
always in place, however much the limb be moved in 
opposite directions. 

Ligaments exist wherever two bones meet at their 
extremities, and also abound in the cavities of the body, 
in the form of flat or round cords, to sustain the weight 
of important organs, as the liver, spleen, and pancreas. 
Without these supports the liver would inevitably fall 
down, from its place just under and behind the false ribs 
of the right side, upon the hollow organs below. The 

Fig. 28. 



Explanation of Fig. 28. 

Complex as the ligaments appear 
in this plan, there is certainly an ad- 
mirable simplicity, conducing exactly 
to the perfection of the frame of the 
hand. Each letter, as in other dia- 
grams, shows the place of each liga- 
ment, as found on dissection, joined 
to the bones, which are thus drawn 
together like so many wedges. It 
would be impossible for the most 
ingenious mechanic to take the dry 
bones and secure them together by 
wires, clasps, rivets or straps, so 
strongly as nature has clone by means 
of these little shining ligaments. 




gall-bladder is tied to the liver by a ligament ; the intes- 
tines are kept in their places by ligaments ; the stomach, 
too, without ligaments would soon be thrown by its own 
muscular exertions, during digestion, from its natural 
locality. Even in the skull, ligaments, assuming various 
forms, support the lobes of the brain, protect vessels, and 



How is the thigh bone kept in its By what contrivance are the bones 
socket ? of the palm kept in exact place ? 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 



47 



give strength to the head during the first years of life. 
Indeed, ligaments are indispensable throughout the ani- 
mal frame. 

By means of them the small bones of the foot are kept 
firmly together in the shape of an arch in the instep : 
otherwise the weight of the body, in walking, would 
crush them apart, and forever destroy their curious con- 
nexion. 



Explanation of Fig. 29. 
By this drawing, which is true to na- 
ture, it will be seen, distinctly, how the 
bones of the instep and ankle are articu- 
lated ; how the instep and phalanges or 
toe bones meet ; and lastly, the small 
letters direct the eye to the locality of 
each ligament, which assists in binding 
this congeries of large and small blocks 
firmly together, like a pavement. 

° In cases of club-foot, the ligaments arc 
very much deranged, in consequence of 
the distortion and displacement of the 
bones. But, however formidable the case 
may appear, if seasonable exertion is 
made, the very worst club-foot may be 
remodelled by an iron shoe, provided 
with metallic rods running up by the sides 
of the ankle, so that both tne "apparatus 
and bones may be kept in place. VVith- 

n out the advice of a surgeon, any ingenious 
mechanic can remedy a malformation of 
the foot, if the trial is commenced while 
the bones are imperfectly ossified. 



By ligaments the wrist is fastened to the arm, indepen- 
dently of muscles ; the shoulder to the shoulder-blade ; 
the head to the first bone of the neck ; the ribs to the 
spine; and the vertebra to each other. The office, there- 
fore, which these deep-seated, almost unnoticed straps 
hold, in binding the whole frame together, cannot be 
overlooked by any one who contemplates the marvellous 
work of God. 




How is it with respect to the con- 
struction of the foot ? 



Explain the nature of club-foot. 



48 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 
Fig. 30. 




Explanation of Fig. 30. 

Having completed a general description of all the individual bones, 
and exhibited some of the principal ligaments of the limbs, the object 
of this third drawing of an entire skeleton is, first, to give a side view 
of the parts adverted to in the foregoing pages, without letters or refe- 
rences to deface the engraving, or to perplex the mind. The peculiar 
attitude of the figure was given it by the artist, merely because a larger 
sized drawing could thus be given in a little space. 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 49 



THE MUSCLES. 



MYOLOGY. 



An interesting department of anatomy is calkd myolo- 
gy, or the doctrine of the muscles. 

We would by no means surfeit our young readers with 
the consideration of subjects which are only considered 
valuable to the anatomist : but we wish general inquirers 
to participate in some of those sublime manifestations of 
the all-creative Power, presented in the mechanism of 
animal bodies, which have too long been locked up in 
libraries. 

All that pertains to anatomy, either human or compa- 
rative, possesses the highest degree of interest. 

We are not so enthusiastic as to suppose that every 
one can feel as earnestly devoted to this science as our- 
selves ; nor is the desire entertained of making dry bones 
a fashionable topic of general conversation ; but we most 
fervently hope that the leading principles of anatomical 
and physiological knowledge will be diffused; will yet 
be taught in all the schools of this country. 

It will lead the young to correct views ; it will dispel 
that vulgar kind of mystery in which the functions of 
individual organs are enveloped; it will strengthen the 
morals, elevate the mind, and be one of the surest means 
of fixing the attention to the considerations of the charac- 
ter and omnipotence of God. 

The desire and the hope to prolong the period of life, 
to raise the dead, and to avert disease, has always been 
founded on a limited and false knowledge of anatomy. 
Those who are truly learned in the science, discover the 
impossibility of maintaining never-failing youth : they 
are convinced of the necessity of death, the only means 
of allowing a succession of beings ; the only means by 
which matter can assume the forms that insure this 
unfailing result. 

Are there any advantages to be de- What is myology 2 
rived from the study of anatomy ? 

5 



50 ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 

Our bodies are indeed marvellously constructed. The 
materials of which they are composed possess the most 
opposite characters, and the effects produced by the har- 
monious operation of each fibre, however minute or re- 
mote, contributes something towards the perfection of 
the whole. The moving powers, the self-acting levers, 
and the invisible something which guides the movement, 
or limits the duration of action, belong to another in- 
quiry ; yet, before arriving there, it is first necessary to 
investigate the instruments of motion, the muscles. 

MUSCLES. 

There are five hundred and twenty-seven muscles In 
man, two hundred and fifty-seven being in pairs. 

Wherever there is a joint to be bent, a bone to be 
moved, or a motion of any kind to be effected, it is entire- 
ly executed by muscles. Muscles are, in popular lan- 
guage, jlcsk; but instead of being an irregular mass, as 
too commonly supposed, a certain number of threads are 
invariably deposited, with systematic attachments, with 
reference to a specific kind of motion. 

Each muscle is formed by an exact rule, from which 
nature never departs without exhibiting a monster, whose 
motions are so far a deviation from the species, that the 
individual is physically defective. A majority of the 
cases in which too many or too few organs are seen are 
to be imputed to incidental causes, which prevented 
nature from completing those portions, the absence or 
excess of which constitutes the essential characteristics 
of a species. 

The figures of the muscles are various, some being 
round, others square, triangular, or flat like a ribbon. In 
length too, the variations are remarkable. Belonging to 
the vocal box, (the larynx,) the muscles, opening and 
closing the rima glottidis, to vary the strength of voice. 
are only about an eighth of an inch : the sartorius, or 
tailor's muscle, by which the legs are crossed, arises on 
the top of the hip bone, and extends six inches below the 
knee, passing two joints, being nearly three feet long. 

Where are the muscles found ? their shape and length? 

How many in the body ? Are they of an uniform size ? 

Are they ever in pain 7 How long is any one muscle ? 
Are muscles all alike, as it regards 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 51 

On the back, the latissimus dorsi, by which the hand is 
brought downward and backward, as by a blacksmith in 
using a hammer, is a foot broad on the back, scarcely an 
inch in width at its attachment to the arm, below the 
shoulder, but at least two feet in length. 

All muscles are large in the middle, but small at the 
extremities : each one, too, is enveloped in a sheath, to 
keep it separate from a contiguous one, that the action 
may not interfere with the. assigned office of any other. 
Indeed, each bundle of fibres of which the muscle is com- 
posed is secured in a sheath of its own, and the whole 
are finally incased in the outside tissue, that binds down 
and secures the whole. 

These coverings of the muscles are elastic, stretching 
and recovering their original form when the contents are 
relaxed. When the greatest degree of contraction takes 
place, as in the muscles of the thigh, the power of the 
muscle is increased a hundred-fold by the tightness of 
the fascia. On the arm, for example, between the elbow 
and shoulder, the flexor of the fore-arm, in a state of 
action, produces a very prominent ball near the middle 
of the bone: on the inferior extremities, were the muscles 
to project out in such a manner, all symmetry would 
inevitably be sacrificed, and the power, too, would be 
very much abridged. Laborers bind a cord round the 
arm when they wish to exert an extraordinary degree of 
strength : sailors, in -order to increase their muscular 
power, usually wear a tightly girded leather belt just 
above the hips; the principle of which is to bind down 
the bellies of the muscles more closely than the straps 
which nature has placed over them. 

The muscles are divided into two classes, viz. the vo* 
luntary, and involuntary ; the first are subservient to the 
will ; but the second order is wholly beyond its influence. 
To put the voluntary muscles in action, we have only to 
•rill it: to incline the power to effect an orderly contrac- 
tion. It is only necessary to will the bending of a finger, 
and it is done ; to will the clinching of the hand, and the 
action follows instantly ; to bend the leg, or extend the 
foot, and the command of the brain is obeyed. 

Have the muscles coverings ? their arms in raising a weight? 

By what means is the strength of a Are any muscles beyond the control 

muscle increased ? of the will 1 
Why do laborers l>ind thongs round 



52 ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 

On the other hand, the muscular fibres of the stomach 
are independent of the mind: the ear receives sonorous 
rays, and propagates them to the labyrinth, by the com- 
bined muscular apparatus within ; nor can we prevent it 
by any effort of the mind to the contrary. 

Before muscles become orderly, before they can serve 
the mind, they must be taught. Thus the child is obliged 
to totter round the room, receiving severe falls, before the 
muscles become trained to the business for which they 
were designed. The infant that has crept feels safer on 
its hands and knees than on its feet, because, by practice, 
the locomotive muscles obey the child in that position, 
and it is conscious of its security from its recollection of 
the fact. 

When the child first endeavors to maintain an erect 
posture, its step is insecure, the muscles not having been 
associated to act in the new trial; the positive influence 
of mind, therefore, must not be suspended an instant ; if 
it is,, the infant falls to the floor. 

When, therefore, any number of muscles have had 
practice in any particular mode oa? time, a habit is ulti- 
mately established, enabling them to continue the accus- 
tomed motion, without the watchful efforts of the mind. 
In this way we learn to walk, to articulate words, to rise,, 
to sit, or assume a daily multitude of positions. 

The principal difficulty the young musician has to en- 
counter in learning to play an instrument consists in 
teaching the muscles of the fingers to move as rapidly as 
the notes a.r.e presented by the brain. Hence the long 
practice required before rapid execution is attained. By a 
long course of schooling the player can at length partially 
withdraw the- mental superintendence ; he can slumber, 
or abstract his thoughts from the air, or enter into conver- 
sation, but the fingers continue their unerring course, in 
time and with surprising accuracy. 

The most opposite and apparently incongruous associ- 
ations of muscular action are exhibited by rope-dancers, 
in throwing carving-knives, which fall in a perfect line> 
points downward, toward the crown of the head, while 
heavy brass rings are whirled with extreme rapidity in 
opposite directions, on each of the great toes. Such 

Why do infants creep before they Can the muscles be trained ta 8* 
•walk ? particular mode of action, 1 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 53 

examples of the extraordinary feats that may be accom- 
plished by teaching muscles to act differently from what 
they appear to have been expressly intended to act, are 
exceedingly common, but not the less surprising. 

Two orders of muscles are obedient to their proper 
rulers ; the one being under the express dominion of the 
mind, and the other influenced only by its appropriate 
stimulus. Food is the natural excitant of the muscular 
tissue of the stomach, and the blood, by its presence, 
stimulates the fibres of the heart. 

But the most perplexing circumstance in relation to 
the muscles, is the property of contraction. Every muscle 
in the body is always tense ; relaxation is a misapplied 
expression, if it were understood that the rest of the mus- 
cle is like a rope slackened until it becomes pendulous be- 
tween two points of attachment. However much a joint 
may be bent, the muscles always remain tense ; apparent- 
Iv as much so as when actually put upon the stretch by 
the extension of the same joint. They carry their con- 
traction still further in cases of luxations. 

When the hip joint is dislocated, the muscles of the 
thigh, finding nothing to oppose them, shorten the limb 
by inches, and hold their grasp so tenaciously that pulleys 
are required to overcome their unrestrained activity. 

When the joint has been too long neglected, and the 
head of the bone cannot be carried back to the socket, on 
account of the violent rigidity of the surrounding muscles, 
they invariably continue in that condition through life. 
Such a limb is consequently thicker than its fellow, the 
circumference being gained at the expense of its length. 

Muscles are never weary ; if that were possible, there 
would be examples of their inability to answer the requi- 
sitions of the will, from this cause. The mind's control 
over them may be suspended or even lost, but still they 
are always active, and always in a state of contraction. 
If their irritability were reduced by fatigue, it could not 
be recalled ; the vis insita, the life of the muscle, survives 
the departure of the soul, and keeps it in a moderate 
contraction long after the vital temperature has been lost, 

Nothing short of putrefaction destroys its contractility. 

Do the muscles act under the in- Are they ever weary? 

fluence of stimuli? Does the contractility of the mus- 

Are the muscles ever relaxed ? les remain after death ? 

5* 



5& anatomical glass book. 

Death, by which is meant the separation of the spiritual 
essence from the material body, does not destroy sudden- 
ly the life of the flesh, as that survives for days and even 
weeks. The truth of this position is established by the 
application, of galvanism to the bodies of malefactors — 
the rolling* eyeballs, the cramped limbs, the heaving 
chest, and in the fiendish expression of the muscles of 
the face. 

An illustration of the permanency of this irritability 
may be seen also in the quivering of meat hung up in the 
shambles of the market ; it is exhibited in the writhings 
of the eel deprived of its head and its skin ; and in the 
violent snapping of the tortoise's jaws, many days after 
decapitation. 

When we are perfectly exhausted, by reason of long 
continued fatigue, the muscles are not the sufferers ; they 
then show their activity by violent exertions. Cramps, 
severe paroxysms, and painful contractions at such times 
supervene, and rarely at any other. These arise from 
the loss of the nervous power ', which is the regulator of 
the system. 

That power may be diminished by long continued ex- 
ercise, by extreme watchfulness* or by many other causes. 
Yet while it is feeble the muscles contract, and perma- 
nent distortions ensue, if the nerves do not recover their 
energy. We retire to our beds, not to giye the muscles an 
opportunity of reposing, but to recover nervous influence. 

Every muscle has an antagonist, with a few exceptions. 
Where there is one to draw in one direction, there is an 
opponent to counteract ; by this contrivance, a complete 
freedom of motion is given to the extremities. Each 
flexor has, opposed to it, an extensor ; and the contraction 
of one is partially accomplished by the relaxation of the 
other ; but the simultaneous action of both fixes the part 
on which they exert their power. Thus the flexors on the 
fore part of the neck, and their antagonists on the back 
side, maintain the head in a vertical line with the body. 

Each muscle terminates in a hard, white cord, appa- 
rently the compressed threads constituting its volume, al- 
though such is not the fact. These are called tendons* 

How can the power of the muscles subservient ? 

be diminished?? What is the object of an antagonist 

Is there a superior power in the muscle? 

system to which the muscles are Describe, a tendpn. . 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 55 

At the place of origin the tendon is thin, inelastic, and 
short, soon intermingling itself with the substance of the 
muscle ; but at the other end it assumes another form, 
being either round, or delicately smooth, tape-like and 
narrow. This is the part which passes over a joint to 
become attached to the next bone. Tendons are nearly 
insensible, being so far removed from the ordinary sensi- 
bility of every thing else, that they rarely, participate in 
the diseases to w T hich all the soft portions of the frame 
are subject. 

To obviate friction, and prevent interference with its 
neighbors, each tendon is invariably conducted through a 
sheath, in which there is a copious secretion of a fluid, 
resembling oil,, that keeps the cord soft, that it may glide 
easily.. 

Symmetry of form is wholly referable to the tendons, 
Without them, the exceeding bulk of the muscle would 
produce, according to our present notion of the beautiful, 
the most hideous deformities. 

"Were the muscles of the fore-arm carried to the palm, 
of the same size that they have at the elbow, the wrist 
would be of the diameter of the elbow; rendering the 
hand unwieldy and nearly useless. 

To the free circulation of the blood into its inmost 
recesses the muscle is indebted for its vigor ; and to the 
nerves for that sensitiveness which renders it susceptible 
of painful or pleasurable sensations. 

The muscle possesses a sensibility completely beyond 
the control of any nerves in the body. An exhibition of 
this property^-this disposition to recoil under excite- 
ment ; to remove itself from the contact of foreign sub- 
stances ; in short, to preserve itself from the destructive 
agency of whatever has a tendency to exhaust its latent 
irritability — is within common reach. A demonstration 
of this phenomenon may be witnessed in the hearts of 
reptiles, pulsating by the prick of a pin, long after being 
removed from the animal ; in the motion of the intestines 
of cats and dogs, cut into strips. While the vital tem- 
perature remains, they move like earth-worms, and when 
they have ceased to move, their irritability can be roused 
again by the application of stimuli. 

How is friction prevented ? On what does the vigor of the mus?- 

On what does the symmetry of the cle mainly depend? 
body depend.? 



56 ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 

Here, then, is exemplified the existence of a property, 
purely vital, which never was, and in the instance before 
us could not be influenced by the nervous system. 

Removed as this property is from the direct influence 
of the nerves, it becomes, under peculiar circumstances, 
the only hope. In cases of suspended animation, as in 
drowning, swooning, &c, there is a prostration of the 
nervous system ; it cannot act ; the will cannot produce 
an impression on the muscles, because its messengers, the 
nerves, are no longer in a condition, from some unknown 
cause, to transmit the orders. At this juncture, if no 
saving efforts' are made, the individual dies. But a skil- 
ful application of agents to the muscles raises their tone 
to that high degree of excitability, that they actually re- 
suscitate the expiring spirit of the nerves. The instant 
that is effected, the sign of success is manifested by the 
obedience of the muscles; the sufferer moves a limb, 
because he determines it; order is at the same instant 
restored in the nerves, and the individual is restored to 
life. 

How exceedingly complicated is the machinery of our 
bodies ! On a cursory examination only of the anatomy 
of the human frame, the beautiful arrangement of such a 
multitude of- tubes, valves, cords, threads and bones, all 
harmonizing and perfect in their action, is well calculated 
to excite astonishment. 

Here are two hundred and forty-six distinct bones, most 
beautifully articulated one with another ; and to move 
them, there is attached to them four hundred and forty-six 
muscles, so systematically, carefully and economically ap- 
plied to the levers, that no power is unnecessarily sacri- 
ficed, and perfect symmetry of form is secured. Each 
muscle, at the least calculation, has ten thousand intentions. 
All of them are ready every moment of time to perform 
their appropriate functions. 

In the simple act of breathing, whether we are in mo- 
tion or resting, sleeping or awake, full one hundred of 
these never weary muscles are brought into motion. 
They are required to labor incessantly from the first 
instant of birth to the latest period of existence, on an 
average of twenty inspirations and alternate expirations 

Through what organs is suspended animation and consciousness recalled 1 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 57 

every minute of time ; yet they never refuse their con- 
currence in this indispensable vital action. 

The heart, itself a compound muscle, whose principle 
of mechanism is but imperfectly understood, exerts its 
muscular force unremittingly till death, in propelling the 
blood into the arteries sixty times a minute. 

The stomach and muscles of the digestive organs, 
together with those of the abdomen, are equally remark- 
able for their untiring activity and perfect readiness to 
perform their appropriate offices. 

Before one of our senses, even that of smell, the lowest, 
and apparently of little utility, when compared with the 
organs of hearing and seeing, can operate, it must be 
intimately united with an almost countless multitude of 
vessels, nerves, glands and muscular tissues. 



A CATALOGUE OF THE PRINCIPAL MUSCLES. 

Perhaps it may be thought that the following table is 
not only unnecessarily minute, but altogether too techni- 
cal ; but as we could devise no method of rendering it 
much more simple, without making the whole unintelli- 
gible, the scientific names of the points of origin and 
insertion have been preserved. It is not expected that 
children will either be interested in or required to learn 
this intricate division of anatomy, even should the first 
principles of the science be generally taught in common 
schools. 

For instructers, however, drawing-school pupils, and 
young artists, the few technical words which are retained 
will be of consequence, as they will be able to refer to the 
skeleton (which we also hope will be considered, at no 
very remote period, an indispensable part of school appa- 
ratus) for the exact places to which they refer. 

Note. — Where the muscle has no fellow, it is marked thus.* It 
should be recollected that the muscles of one side of the body only are 
here considered. 



58 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 



MUSCLES OF THE HEAD, EYELIDS, EYEBALL, NOSE AND MOUTH. 

Arises from 

The upper ridge of the 
occipital bone ; its aponeu- 
rosis covers the upper part 
of the head. 

Above the root of the 
nose. 

Around the edge of the 
orbit. 

The bottom of the orbit 
near the optic foramen. 

Around the optic foramen 
of the sphaenoid bone, at 
the bottom of the orbit. 

Near the optic foramen, 
and passes through a loop 
in the internal canthus of 
the eye, and is reflected to 
be 

The ductus nasalis, and 
is inserted 



Name. 
Occipito-frontalis.^ 

Corrugator supercilii. 

Orbicularis palpebrarum. 

Levator palpebrae superi- 
or is. 

Rectus superior. 
Rectus inferior. 
Rectus internus. 
Rectus externus. 
Obliquus superior, or Tro- 
chlearis. 



Obliquus inferior. 

Fig. 31. 




Explanation of Fig. 
31. 
a, the pyramidalis 
nasi; o, the com- 
pressor nasi; a, oc- 
cipito frontalis ; c, 
orbicularis palpebra- 
rum; p, corrugator 
supercilii; n, levator 
palpebrce superioris; 
f zygomaticus ma- 
jor ; e, zygomaticus 
minor; t, orbicularis 
oris ; k, depressor 
anguli oris; m, de- 
pressor labii inferio- 
ris ; h, the masseter 
muscle ; g, the bucci- 
nator ; d, levator labii 
superioris alceque na- 
si ,*• g, the parietal 
bone seen beyond the 
coronal suture. 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 



59 



MUSCLES OF THE HEAD, EYELIDS, EYEBALL, NOSE AND MOUTH 



Inserted into 
The skin of the eyebrows 
and root of the nose. 



The inner part of the oc- 
cipito-frontalis. 

The inner corner of the 
eyes. 

The cartilage of the tar- 
sus of the upper eyelid. 

The anterior part of the 
tunica sclerotica, opposite to 
each other. 

The posterior part of the 
bulb, between the rectus 
and the entrance of the op- 
tic nerve. 



Use. 

To pull the skin of the 
head backward — raise the 
eyebrows and skin of the 
forehead. 

To wrinkle the eyebrows. 

To shut the eye. 

To open the eye, by rais- 
ing the upper eyelid. 

To raise it upward. 

To pull it downward. 

To turn it to the nose. 

To move it outward. 

To roll the eye, and turn 
the pupil downward and 
outward. 



Opposite to the former. 



To roll the eye. 



By recurring to the plate, (Fig. 31,) the pupil will form a tolerably 
accurate idea of the muscles of the face. They lie very superficially, 
just under the skin, and are all muscles of expression ; therefore only 
perfectly developed in the European, or white man's face, in whose 
countenance the passions of the mind are strongly exhibited. In the 
negro, owing partly to the color of the skin, the expression is necessarily 
very imperfect : he can never have majesty nor dignity, or an elevation 
of thought, portrayed in his features. When the jet black negro expresses 
his emotions, unless the teeth and the whites of the eyes are exposed, 
there is little variety of expression, because no shades are created by the 
contractions of the muscles. This fact is familiar to the engraver and 
the painter. The pictures of colored persons are always very nearly 
alike ; the portrait of one will answer for many ; and the circumstance 
is wholly referable to the imperfect manner in which the light and sha- 
dows are created on the skin. 

The muscles of expression are fewer and smaller, as animals descend 
the scale of creation. 



Name some of the principal mus- 
cles of expression in the face. 

Give the names and office of those 
about the eye. 



Are the muscles of expression dif- 
ferent in the lower animals ? 

Why are the portraits of colored 
people wanting in expression ? 



60 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 



Name. 

Levator labii superioris 
alaeque nasi. 

Levator labii superioris 
proprius. 

Levator anguli oris. 

Zygomaticus major. 



Zygomaticus minor. 
Buccinator. 

Depressor anguli oris. 
Depressor labii inferioris. 



Arises from 

The nasal process of the 
superior maxillary bone. 

The upper jaw under the 
orbit. 

The orbitar foramen of 
the sup. max. bone. 

The os jugale, near the 
zygomatic suture, and runs 
downward. 

Above the zygomaticus 
major. 

The sockets of the last 
molares, and the coronal 
process of the lower jaw. 

The lower edge of the 
under jaw, near the chin. 

The inferior part of the 
lower jaw, next the chin. 



Fig. 32. 




ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 61 

Inserted into Use, 

The upper lip and ala of It raises the upper lip, 

the nose. and dilates the nostrils. 

The middle of the upper To pull the upper lip di- 

lip. rectly upward. 

The orbicularis, at the To raise the corner of the 

angle of the mouth. mouth. 

The angle of the mouth, To inflate the cheek and 

with the depressor of the raise the angle of the mouth. 

% 

The angle of the mouth. To raise the angle of the 

mouth outward. 
The angle of the mouth, To contract the mouth, 
and is perforated by the and draw the angle of it 
duct of the parotid gland. outward and backward. 
The angle of the mouth. To draw the corner of 

the mouth downward. 
The middle of the under To draw the under lip 
lip. downward and outward. 

Explanation of Fig. 32. 

d. The occipito-fron talis. 

e. The orbicularis palpebrarum. 

f. The corrugator supercilii. 

f. The compressor naris. 
. The orbicularis oris. 
i. The levator labii superioris alseque nasi. 
j. The levator anguli oris. 
k. The zygomaticus major and minor. 

1. The depressor anguli oris, 
m. The depressor labii inferioris. 
n. The buccinator. 

o. The masseter. 

p. The temporal fascia, or aponeurosis. 

2. The parotid gland, which supplies the mouth with saliva. 

3. Steno's duct, to conduct the fluid into the mouth. 

4. The temporal artery. 

5. The facial artery. 

Parts seen in the neck, 

q. The sterno-cleido mastoideus. 

r. The omo-hyoideus. 

s. The sterno-hyoideus. 

t. The sterno-thyroideus. 

u. The digastricus. 

v. The stylo-hyoideus. 

w. The mylo-hyoideus. 

6. The sub-maxillary gland ; also pours saliva into the mouth. 

7. The external jugular vein. 

The sheath containing the carotid artery. 

6 



62 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 



Name. 
Orbicularis oris. 5 * 



Depressor labii superioris 
alseque nasi. 

Constrictor nasi. 



Levator 
inferioris. 



menti vel labii 



Arises from 

This muscle surrounds 
the lips, and is in a great 
measure formed by the buc- 
cinator, zygomatici, and 
others, which move the lip. 

The sockets of the upper 
incisor teeth. 

The root of one wi-ng of 
the nose, and 

The lower jaw, at the 
root of the incisors. 



MUSCLES OF THE EXTERNAL EAR. 



Superior auris, or attol- 
lens aurem. 
Anterior auris. 

Posterior auris, or retra- 
hens auris. 

Helicis major. 

Helicis minor. 

Tragicus. 

Antitragus 
Transversus auris. 



The tendon of the occipi- 
to-frontalis above the ear. 

Near the back part of the 
zygoma. 

The mastoid process, by 
two and sometimes three 
fasciculi. 

The upper, anterior, and 
acute part of the helix. 

The interior and anterior 
part of the helix. 

The outer and middle 
part of the concha, near the 
tragus. 

From the root of the 
inner part of the helix. 

The upper part of the 
concha. 



MUSCLES OF THE INTERNAL EAR. 



Laxator tympani. 
Tensor tympani. 
Stapedius. 



The spinous process of 
the sphsenoid bone. 

The cartilaginous extre- 
mity of the Eustachian tube. 

A little cavern in the pe- 
trous portion, near the cells 
of the mastoid process. 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 



63 



Inserted into "Use. 

To shut the mouth, by- 
contracting the lips. 



The root of the ala nasi 
and upper lip. 
goes across to the other. 

The skin in the centre of 
the chin. 



To pull the ali nasi and 
upper lip down. 

To compress the wings 
of the nose. 

To raise the under lip 
and skin of the chin. 



MUSCLES OF THE EXTERNAL EAR. 



The root of the cartilagi- 
nous tube of the ear. 

The eminence behind the 
helix. 

The septum that divides 
the scapha and concha. 



To draw the ear upward, 
and make it tense. 

To raise this eminence 
forward. 

To draw the ear back, 
and stretch the concha. 



The cartilage of the helix, To depress the upper part 
a little above the tragus. of the helix. 

The crus of the helix. To contract the fissure. 



The upper 


part 


of 


the 


To depress the concha, 


tragus. 








and pull the tragus a little 
outward. 


The upper 


part 


of 


the 


To dilate the mouth of 


antitragus. 








the concha. 


The inner 


part 


of 


the 


To draw these parts to- 


helix. 








ward each other. 



MUSCLES OF THE INTERNAL EAR. 



The long process of the 
malleus. 



The handle of the malle- 



us. 



The posterior part of the 
head of the stapes. 



To draw the malleus ob- 
liquely forward, toward its 
origin. 

To pull the malleus and 
membrane of the tympanum 
toward the petrous portion. 

To draw the stapes ob- 
liquely upward toward the 
cavern. 



64 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 



MUSCLES OF THE LOWER JAW. 



Name. 
Temporalis. 



Masseter. 



Pterygoideus mternus. 



Pterygoideus externus. 



Arises from 

The lower part of the pa- 
rietal bone and os frontis ; 
squamous part of the tempo- 
ral bone ; back part of the os 
jugale } the temporal process 
of the sphaenoid bone, and the 
aponeurosis which covers it. 

The sup. max. bone, near 
the os jugale; and from the 
anterior part of the zygoma. 

The internal pterygoid 
process of the sphaenoid 
bone. 

The external pterygoid 
process. 



MUSCLES ABOUT THE NECK* 



Platysma myoides. 



Stemo-cleido-mastoideus. 



The cellular membrane 
covering the pectoral and 
deltoid muscles. 

The upper part of the 
sternum, and fore part of 
the clavicle. 

Fig. 33. 




ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 



65 



MUSCLES OF THE LOWER JAW. 



Inserted into 
The coronoid process of 
the lower jaw, its fibres 
being bundled together and 
pressed into a small com- 
pass, so as to pass under the 
jugum, or zygoma. 

The angle of the lower 
jaw upwards to the basis of 
the coronoid process. 

The lower jaw on its 
inner side, and near its an- 
gle. 

The condyloid process of 
the lower jaw and capsular 
ligament. 



Use. 

To move the lower jaw 
upward. 



To raise and move the 
jaw a little forward and 
backward. 

To raise the lower jaw, 
and draw it a little to one 
side. 

To move the jaw, and to 
prevent the ligament of the 
jaw from being pinched. 



MUSCLES ABOUT THE NECK. 



The side of the chin and 
integuments of the cheek. 

The mastoid process, and 
as far back as the occipital 
suture. 



To draw the cheeks and 
skin of the face downward. 

To move the head to one 
side and bend it forward,. 



Explanation of Fig. 33. 

A, and b, sterno cleido mastoideus ; h, stylo hyoideus ; g, g, the two 
bellies of the digastricus ; f, sterno hyoideus ; t, the lower end of the 
mastoideus of the right side ; e } omo hyoideus ; d, the os hyoides ; c, the 
clavicle; k } complexus. 

Under the sterno cleido mastoid muscle, bounded by the letters a and 
6, in the opposite drawing, are a variety of beautiful, ribbon-like muscles, 
which are generally attached to the bone of the tongue, and the vocal 
box, called the larynx, which is the protuberance in the front part of 
the throat. Again, those muscles which arise about the base of the skull, 
under the ear, and angle of the under jaw, are also inserted into the same 
places ; so that the bone and larynx are movable fulcrums, increasing 
the power of the muscles on either side, by changing their position. By 
this simple contrivance, the contraction of the muscles compresses the 
windpipe, and thus increases or varies the tone of the voice, by dimi- 
nishing the diameter of the air tube. Thus, bad singers in sounding a 
high note stretch back the head ; thus, too, unconsciously press the mu- 
sical pipe into the smallest diameter. To sound a bass note, the chin is 
brought towards the breast,— and the same muscles are relaxed, and \h& 
diameter of the tube is at once increased. 

6* 



66 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 



THE LOWER JAW AND BONE 
TONGUE. 

Arises from 
A fossa at the root of the 

mastoid process. 

The inner surface of the 

jaw bone. 

The inside of the chin. 

The inside of the chin. 

The horn, basis, and car- 
tilage of the os hyoides. 

The root of the tongue 
laterally. 

THE OS HYOIDES AND TRUNK. 

The sternum and clavicle. 

Near the coracoid process 
of the scapula. 

The upper and inner part 
of the sternum. 

Part of the basis and horn 
of the os hyoides. 

The side of the cricoid 
cartilage. 

MUSCLES SITUATED BETWEEN THE LOWER JAW AND OS 
HYOIDES A LATERALLY. 

The apex of the styloid 
process. 

The basis, and about the 
middle of the styloid pro- 
cess. 

The root of the styloid 
process. 



MUSCLES SITUATED BETWEEN 
OF THE 

Name. 
Digastricus. 

Mylo-hyoideus. 

Genio-hyoideus, 

Genio-glossus. 

Hyo-glossus. 

Lingualis. 

MUSCLES SITUATED BETWEEN 

Sterno-hyoideus. 

Omo-hyoideus. 

Sterno-thyroideus. 

Thyreo-hyoideus, or Hyo- 
thyroideus. 

Crico-thyroideus. 



Stylo-glossus. 
Stylo-hyoideus. 

Stylo-pharyngeus. 



Circumflexus, 

or 

Tensor palati. 

Levator palati mollis. 



Near the Eustachian tube, 
and passes through the ha- 
mulus of the pterygoid pro- 
cess, to be 

The point of the os pe- 
trosum, the Eustachian tube, 
and sphsenoid bone. 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 67 

MUSCLES SITUATED BETWEEN THE LOWER JAW AND BONE 
OF THE TONGUE. 

Inserted into Use. 

The lower and anterior To draw the lower jaw 

part of the chin. downward. 

The basis of the os hyoi- To move the os hyoides 

des. upward. 

The basis of the os hyoi- To move the os hyoides 

des. upward. 

The tongue, forming part To move the tongue in 

of its substance. various directions. 

Into the tongue laterally. To draw the tongue down- 
ward and inward. 

The extremity of the To shorten and draw the 

tongue. tongue backward. 

MUSCLES SITUATED BETWEEN THE OS HYOIDES AND TRUNK. 

The basis of the os hyoi- To draw the os hyoides 

des. downward. 

The basis of the os hyoi- To draw the os hyoides 

des. downward. 

The thyroid cartilage. To pull the thyroid carti- 

lage downward. 

The side of the thyroid To raise the cartilage, 

cartilage. and depress the bone. 

The inferior horn of the To pull the thyroid car- 
thyroid cartilage. tilage towards the cricoid. 

MUSCLES SITUATED BETWEEN THE LOWER JAW AND OS 
HYOIDES, LATE RALLY . 

The side of the root of To pull the tongue back- 

the tongue. ward. 

The basis of the os hyoi- To draw the os hyoides 

des. upward. 

The edge of the pharynx, To dilate the pharynx, 
and back of the thyroid car- and raise the cartilage, 
tilage. 

The velum pendulum pa- To draw the velum pen- 
lati. dulumpalati obliquely down- 

ward, and stretch it. 

The velum pendulum pa- To pull the velum pendu- 
lati, being expanded upon it. lum backward and upward* 



68 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 



MUSCLES SITUATED ABOUT THE ENTRY OF THE FAUCES. 



Name. 
Constrictor faucium. 

Palato-Pharyngeus. 



Azygos uvulae.^ 



Arises from 

Near the root of the 
tongue on each side, and 
goes round to be 

The middle of the soft 
palate, goes round the entry 
of the fauces, the tendon of 
the circumflexus palati, and 
velum pendulum palati, to be 

The commissure of the 
ossa palati. 



MUSCLES SITUATED ON THE POSTERIOR PART OF THE 
PHARYNX. 

Constrictor pharyngius The cricoid and thyroid 
inferior. cartilages. 

Constrictor pharyngius The horns, and appendix 
medius. of the os hyoides. 

Constrictor pharyngius The pterygoid process, the 
superior. lower j aw, and the cuneiform 

process of the os occipitis. 

MUSCLES SITUATED ABOUT THE GLOTTIS. 



Crico-arytaenoideus posti- 
cus. 

Crico-arytaenoideus late- 
ralis, or obliquus. 

Thyreo-arytaenoideus. 

A.rytaenoideus obliquus.^ 

Arytaenoideus trans ver- 
sus. 5 * 1 

Thyreo-epiglottideus. 

Arytaeno epiglottideus. 



The cricoid cartilage pos- 
teriorly. 

The side of the cricoid 
cartilage. 

The back of the thyroid 
cartilage. 

The root of one arytaenoid 
cartilage. 

One of the arytaenoid car- 
tilages. 

The thyroid cartilage. 

The upper part of the 
arytaenoid cartilage laterally. 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 69 

MUSCLES SITUATED ABOUT THE ENTRY OF THE FAUCES. 

Inserted into Use. 

The middle of the velum To raise the tongue, and 

pendulum palati, near the draw the velum toward it. 
uvula. 

The upper and posterior To contract the arch of 

part of the thyroid cartilage, the fauces. 



The extremity of the To shorten and raise the 
uvula. uvula. 

MUSCLES SITUATED ON THE POSTERIOR PART OF THE 
PHARYNX. 

The middle of the pha- To compress part of the 
rynx. pharynx. 

The ambit of the pha- To compress the pharynx, 
rynx. and draw the os hyoides 

upward. 
The middle of the pha- To move the pharynx 
rynx. upward and forward, and 

to compress its upper part. 

MUSCLES SITUATED ABOUT THE GLOTTIS. 

The back of the arytenoid To open the glottis, 
cartilage. 

The side of the arytenoid To open the glottis, 
cartilage. 

The fore part of the ary- To draw the arytsenoid 

tsenoid cartilage. cartilage forward. 

The extremity of the To draw them toward 

other. each other. 

The other arytenoid car- To shut the glottis, 
tilage. 

The side of the epiglottis. To pull the epiglottis ob- 
liquely downward. 

The side of the epiglottis. To move the epiglottis 

outward. 



70 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 



MtJSCLES SITUATED ON THE ANTERIOR PART OF THE ABDO- 
MEN. 



Name. 
Obliquus descendens ex- 
ternus. 

Obliquus ascendens inter- 
ims. 



Arises from 

The lower edges of the 
eight inferior ribs near the 
cartilages. 

The spinous processes of 
the three last lumbar verte- 
brae, back of the sacrum, and 
spine of the ilium. 

Fie. 34. 




Transversalis abdominis. 



Rectus abdominis. 



Pyramidalis. 



The cartilages of the se- 
ven lower ribs, and the trans- 
verse processes of the four 
lower lumbar vertebrae and 
spine of the ilium. 

The outside of the ster- 
num and xyphoid cartilage. 

The anterior upper part 
of the pubis. 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK 



71 



MUSCLES SITUATED ON THE ANTERIOR PART OF THE ABDO- 
MEN. 

Inserted into Use. 

The linea alba, ossa pubis, To compress the abdo- 
and spine of the ilium. men. 

The cartilages of all the To compress the abdo- 
false ribs, linea alba, and men. 
pubis, and sternum, by a 
flat tendon. 



Explanation of Fig. 34. 

f, The obliquus interims, with its tendon divided, to show 
, The pyramidalis. 
£, The rectus abdominis. Beneath the internal oblique there is situ- 
ated 
k y The transversalis abdominalis, and 
Z, The fascia transversalis. 

The tendons of the abdominal muscles form junctions in front, where 
their broad white tendons meet, which are denominated lines ; and that 
which runs exactly in the middle, from the lower point of the sternum 
to the pubis, is the linea alba, or white line. Again, the long abdominal 
muscles, lying each side of this linea alba, are intersected, several times, 
between their two extremities, by similar tendinous lines, which, in 
reality, divides them into a chain ot muscles. This structure has refe- 
rence to increasing their power, by a series of contractions, along their 
course, which thereby answers a second intention, viz. preserving a 
symmetry of form. By consulting Fig. 34. page 70, both the vertical and 
transverse lines are discoverable. Statues representing action invariably 
exhibit the muscles of tht bowels thrown into ridges. Upon the princi- 
ples adverted to in the preliminary essay on myology, without these 
transverse bands the bellies of the long recti muscles, in order to pull the 
chest, as in stooping, for example, whi.e seated in a chair, so as to bring 
the breast down to the knees, would have a bulk, by the process of con- 
traction, equal to a two-quart measure. By the introduction of the trans- 
verse tendinous lines, two vastly important results are obtained, — increas- 
ed power and beauty of form. 



The linea alba throughout 
its whole length, and into 
the ensiform cartilage. 



To compress the abdomi- 
nal viscera. 



The side of the symphy- 
sis of the pubis. 

The linea alba, below the 
umbilicus. 



To compress the abdo- 
men, and bend the trunk. 

To assist the lower por- 
tion of the rectus. 



72 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 



MUSCLES SITUATED WITHIN THE PELVIS. 



Name. 
Obturator internus. 

Coccygeus. 



Arises from 

The foramen ovale, obtu- 
rator ligament, ilium, ischi- 
um, and pubis. 

The spinous process of 
the ischium. 



MUSCLES SITUATED WITHIN THE CAVITY OF THE ABDOMEN. 



Quadratus lumborum. 
Psoas parvus. 

Fig. 35. 



The posterior part of the 
spine of the ilium. 

The transverse process of 
the last dorsal vertebrae. 




Explanation of Fig. 35. 
K. The iliacus internus. 
R. The psoas magnus. . 
S. The obturator exter- 
nus. 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 73 

MUSCLES SITUATED WITHIN THE PELVIS. 

Inserted into Use. 

A large pit between the To roll the femur oblique- 

trochanters of the femur. ly outward. 

The extremity of the sa- To move the coccyx for- 

crum and os coccygis. ward and inward. 

MUSCLES SITUATED WITHIN THE CAVITY OF THE ABDOMEN. 

The transverse apophyses To support the spine and 

of the loins and last spu- draw it to one side, 
rious rib. 

The brim of the pelvis, To bend the loins for- 

near the place of the aceta- ward, 
bulum. 



On the inside of the broad hip bone, os innominatum, seen on the 
opposite page, Fig. 35, and also running up by the side of the lumbar 
vertebrae, three muscles have their origin, that bear a highly important 
part in the locomotive power of the body. In these, as in every other 
place in the system, a twofold intention is answered. First, these three 
muscles are cushions, on which the coils of the intestines rest. With- 
out them, some other provision would have been necessary, as a soft bed 
is indispensable for them, in the violent exercises of running, leaping, or 
even walking. Secondly, the tendons of the psoas raagnus and iliacus 
internus are sent over the brim of the pelvis, to wind down the inside of 
the groin, close to the bone, to reach the backside of the thigh bone, 
where they are fastened. Obscure as they are, these muscles, when 
standing on our feet, maintain the body in an erect position. If we desire 
to move forward, these muscles lift up the whole limb, and when they 
relax, the foot strikes the ground again. If, while sitting, the knee is 
raised towards the chest, the act is accomplished by these two muscles. 
In walking and running, therefore, as they are the lifters of the leg, their 
services could not be dispensed with. A lumbar abscess, a. painful dis- 
ease, wholly forbidding the movement of the limb of the side in which it 
occurs, is a collection of matter under the psoas magnus, and next to the 
back bone, near the line R, on the plate. As the abscess cannot be 
very safely discharged bv a surgical operation, through the muscles of 
the back, in protracted cases, the matter sometimes follows the muscles 
quite into the limb, and forces its way down, even to the knee, before it 
escapes. This dreadful disease has been induced by lying on the damp 
ground, after freely exercising ; and by unnecessary 'feats of strength, in 
lifting burdens. 



74 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 



Name. 
Psoas magnus. 

Iliacus interims. 



Arises from 

The bodies and processes 
of the last dorsal and all the 
lumbar vertebrae. 

The internal surface of 
the spine of the ilium. 



MUSCLES SITUATED ON THE ANTERIOR PART OF THE THORAX 

Pectoralis major. 



The clavicle, sternum and 
seven true ribs. 



Fig. 36. 




Subclavius. 
Pectoralis minor. 



The cartilage of the first 
rib. 

The third, fourth, and 
fifth ribs. 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 75 

Inserted into Use. 

The os femoris, a little To bend the thigh for- 
below the trochanter minor, ward. 

The femur in common To assist the psoas mag- 
with the psoas magnus. nus. 

MUSCLES SITUATED ON THE ANTERIOR PART OF THE THORAX. 

The upper and inner part To draw the arm forward, 
of the humerus. or obliquely forward. 



Explanation of Fig. 36. 

a, The pectoralis major. 

6, 6, The obliquus abdominis extemus descendens : beneath these 
muscles the following : — 

c, The pectoralis minor. 

d, The serratus magnus anticus. 

e, The external intercostal muscles. 

f, The internal intercostal muscles. 

g, The obliquus abdominal internus ascendens. 

By returning to the anatomy of the ribs, it is there shown that they 
are constructed to move : breathing is effected by increasing and dimi- 
nishing the capacity of the chest, as the lungs are inflated or collapsed. 
To carry on this operation, an appropriate class of muscles take their 
rise, on and about the ribs and sternum, to be exclusively engaged in this 
respitory action. Between the edges of the ribs short oblique muscles, 
one the internal and the other the external, crossing each other, like 
suspenders on a man's back, are untiring in their labors ; when they 
contract, the ribs are brought together; and when relaxed, the diameter 
of the chest is enlarged. All the muscles on the breast and sides are 
remotely respitory agents. If the arms are fixed, by their contraction 
the ribs are drawn outwardly. Asthmatic persons, because the smaU 
intercostal muscles do not relax enough, bring the pectoral muscles to 
their aid, by raising their hands and holding on to a door, or a beam, for 
example, above the head. This enables them to pull open, as it were, 
the bottom of the chest. Women often swoon and sometimes drop down 
dead instantly, in consequence of lacing the chest so tightly that the ribs 
cannot possibly move. 



The under surface of the To move the clavicle 

clavicle. downward. 

The coracoid process of To roll the scapula, 
the scapula. 



76 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 



Name. 
Serratus major anticus. 



Arises from 
The eight superior ribs. 



MUSCLES SITUATED BETWEEN THE RIBS AND WITHIN THE 
THORAX. 

Intercostales externi. 



Intercostales interni. 



Triangularis, or 
Sterno-cos talis. 



The lower edge of each 
upper rib. 

Like the former, their 
fibres are directed from be- 
hind forward. 

The middle and inferior 
part of the sternum. 



MUSCLES SITUATED ON THE ANTERIOR PART OF THE NECK, 
CLOSE TO THE VERTEBRAE. 



Longus colli. 



Rectus internus capitis 
major. 

Rectus internus capitis 
minor. 

Rectus capitis lateralis. 



The bodies of the three 
upper dorsal and transverse 
processes of the four last 
cervical. 

The transverse processes 
of the five last cervical ver- 
tebrae. 

The fore part of the atlas. 

The transverse process of 
the atlas. 



MUSCLES SITUATED ON THE POSTERIOR PART OF THE TRUNK. 



Trapezius, or Cucullaris. 



Latissimus dorsi. 



Serratus posticus inferior. 



The os occipitis and the 
spinous processes of all the 
vertebras of the neck and 
back. 

The spine of the ilium, 
spinous process of the sa- 
crum, lumbar and inferior 
dorsal vertebras ; adheres to 
the scapula and inferior false 
ribs. 

The spinous processes of 
the two last dorsal and three 
lumbar vertebras. 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 77 

Inserted into Use, 

The base of the scapula. To bring the scapula for- 
ward. 

MUSCLES SITUATED BETWEEN THE RIBS AND WITHIN THE 
THORAX. 

The superior edge of each To elevate the ribs. 
lower rib. 



The cartilages of the five To depress the cartilages 
last true ribs. of the ribs. 

MUSCLES SITUATED ON THE ANTERIOR PART OF THE NECK, 
CLOSE TO THE VERTEBRA. 

The anterior tubercle of To pull the neck to one 
the dentatus. . side. 



The cuneiform process To bend the head for- 

of the os occipitis. ward. 

The os occipitis, near the To assist the former, 
condyloid process. 

The os occipitis, near the To move the head to one 

mastoid process. side. 

MUSCLES SITUATED ON THE POSTERIOR PART OF THE TRUNK. 

The clavicle, part of the To move the scapula, bend 

acromion, and the spine of the neck, and pull the head 

the scapula. backward. 

The os humeri, between To draw the os humeri 

its two tuberosities in the backward, and to roll it upon 

edge of the groove for the its axis, 
tendon of the biceps muscle. 



The lower edge of the To draw the ribs outward, 
three or four lowermost ribs, downward, and backward, 
near their cartilages. 
7* 



78 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 



Name. 
Rhomboideus. 

Splenitis. 

Serratus superior posticus. 

Spinalis dorsi. 



Levatores costarum, or 
Supra-cosales. 

Sacro-lumbalis. 



Arises from 

The spinous processes of 
the three last cervical, and 
four first dorsal vertebrae. 

The spines of the four 
last cervical, and four supe- 
rior dorsal vertebrae. 

The spinous processes of 
the three last cervical, and 
two superior dorsal vertebrae. 

Two spinous processes of 
the loins, and three lower 
of the back. 

The transverse processes 
of the last cervical and the 
dorsal vertebrae. 

The sacrum, spine of the 
ilium, and the spinous and 
transverse processes of the 
lumbar vertebrae. 



Fig. 37. 




Explanations of 
Fig. 37. 

a, The trapezius. 
* 6, The latissimus 
J dorsi. 

c, The rhomboi- 
deus minor. 

d, The rhomboi- 
e deus major. 

e, The serratus 
posticus inferior. 

f The levator an- 
guh scapuloe. 



4 



Blocks were intro- 
duced to represent 
the figure in a hori- 
zontal position, that 
the muscles might 
be more distinctly 
seen. 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 



79 



Inserted into 
The basis of the scapula, 
at its upper and lower part. 

The two first cervical ver- 
tebras, and the side of the os 
occipitis. 

The second, third, and 
fourth ribs, by three neat 
fleshy tongues. 

All the spinous processes 
of the back, except the first. 

The angles of the ribs. 



Use, 
To move the scapula up- 
wards and backward. 

To move the head back- 
ward, and also to one side. 

To expand the thorax, by 
elevating the ribs. 

To extend the vertebrae. 



To lift the ribs upward. 



The lower edge of each 
rib, by a flat tendon. 



To draw the ribs down- 
ward, to move the body upon 
its axis, to assist the longissi- 
mus dorsi, and to turn the 
neck back, or to one side. 



All the muscles of the back, clearly defined in Fig. 37, on the opposite 
page, are broad, thin, and generally produce the slow motion of the limbs. 
In the middle of the trapezius, marked a, is a white line, where the fibres 
of the muscles on either side meet and adhere to the spinous processes 
of the bones of the neck. On this line, in quadrupeds, is placed a power- 
fully strong cord, by the farriers called paxwax, but by anatomists liga- 
mentum nuchce, which, being attached to the back bone, between the 
shoulders, prevents their heavy head from drooping to the ground. It 
wii-1 not relax : when they drink or feed on a level with their feet, the 
nose, even by a voluntary effort, barely reaches to the earth. 

Examples of the prodigious strength of this ligament or nape of the 
neck are noticeable in the elephant, rhinoceros, sea-horse, and wild boar. 
It becomes exceedingly strong in the necks of oxen habituated to draw 
burdens by their horns instead of a bow about the shoulders. When 
divided artificially, in any of the quadrupeds, the muscles cannot possibly 
maintain the head in its natural position. 



80 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 
Fig. 33. 




ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. SI 



Explanation of Fig, 35. 

a, upper portion of the trapezius; i, sterno cleido mastoideus; d, the 
deltoid portion of the trapezius; f % the latissimus dorsi ; n, n, n, n, por- 
tions of the latissimus, rising- by digitations from the ribs ; g, and b, ten- 
dinous continuation of the latissimus into fibres of the gluteus maximus ; 
h, the deltoides muscle, to raise the arm ; k, e, m, the infra spinatus, 
belonging to the shoulder ; c, the clavicular portion of the deltoides ; I, 
the intermingling of the fibres of the gluteus maximus and latissimus 
dorsi. 

The artist was particularly fortunate in delineating the muscles in the 
accompanying diagram. No plate could more accurately show the rela- 
tion which one bears to the other, nor more truly represent the converging 
fibres, all centring in the tendons. As in the demonstration of the eye, 
it can also be said here, that there are coats of muscles on the back and 
sides. One overlaps the edges of another, in such a perfect manner as 
to leave no deep spaces : an even covering is thus spread over the skele- 
ton. The latissimus dorsi, marked/", is one of the most beautiful in the 
body ; and its utility is proved even* moment. Its office is to bring down 
the nand. Before man invented instruments which have superseded, to 
considerable extent, the primitive use of the hand in some particulars, 
his fist was a mallet, the arm the handle, and this muscle the power 
that gave force to the blow. Those mechanics who are constantly using 
hammers and axes increase its size and strength amazingly. If the 
arm, on the other hand, be firmly fixed, in a horizontal position, the 
digitations marked n, n,n,n, by their strong hold upon the false ribs, 
would open the bottom of the chest quite effectually. Over the shoulder 
joint, and from thence running to the middle of the" arm bone, is a splen- 
did muscle, — the deltoides, marked h, which raises the arm to a level 
with the shoulder ; its lateral portions even carry the elbow very much 
above the level of their origin. If it were divided, no remaining muscle 
could perform its office. Just above f, winding partially under the del- 
toides, is that muscle which extends the arm. The name of triceps ex- 
tensor cubiti is given it, because it arises by three heads, which uniting 
in one tendon, passes the elbow joint, on the back of the arm. to be in- 
serted into the ulna, or, as the bone is sometimes called, the cubit. 
Lastly, k, e, m, directs the eye to the infra spinatus, arising on the ex- 
ternal surface of the shoulder-blade, and inserted into the arm bone. By 
its contraction the arm is raised a very little, and carried backward ; its 
tendon, as it passes over the shoulder joint, adheres to the capsular liga- 
ment and keeps it drawn out, so that it may not be pinched by the rolling 
motion of the ball in the* socket. 

A provision analogous to this double office of the triceps tendon over 
the back of the elbow exists in the knee, ankle, and several other joints. 
Owing to the little elasticity of the capsular membrane, there is a ten- 
dency, in consequence of the pressure of the tendons running over the 
articulation, to force them into the cavity made by bending the joint, 
where they would inevitably suffer violence when the ends of the bones 
came into place again, were there not a mechanical contrivance to prevent 
it. As soon as the flexors begin to act, some other muscles or parts of 
muscles at the same instant also begin to pull the surrounding ligament 
out from the depression : thus it is kept from being pinched and ultimate- 
ly ruined by the injury it would sustain, 



82 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 



Name. 
Longissimus dorsi. 

Complexus. 



Trachelo-mastoideus. 
Levator scapulae. 
Semi-spinalis dorsi. 
Multifidus spinae. 



Semi-spinalis colli, or 
Spinalis cervicis. 

Transversalis colli. 



Rectus capitis posticus 
major. 

Rectus capitis posticus 
minor. 

Obliquus capitis superior. 

Obliquus capitis inferior. 

Scalenus. 

Interspinales. 

Inter-transversales. 



Arises from 

The same parts as the 
former, and by one com- 
mon broad tendon. 

The transverse processes 
of the four inferior cervical, 
and seven superior dorsal 
vertebras. 

The transverse processes 
of the five lower cervical and 
three upper dorsal vertebras. 

The transverse processes 
of the four superior cervical 
vertebrae. 

The transverse processes 
of the 7th, 8th, 9th, and 
10th dorsal vertebrae. 

The sacrum, ilium, ob- 
lique and transverse proces- 
ses of the lumbar, the trans- 
verse of the dorsal, and four 
cervical vertebrae. 

The transverse processes 
of the six upper dorsal ver- 
tebrae. 

The transverse processes 
of the five upper dorsal ver- 
tebrae. 

The transverse process of 
the second cervical vertebrae. 

The first vertebrae of the 
neck. 

The transverse process of 
the atlas. 

The spinous process of 
the dentatus. 

The upper surface of the 
first and second rib. 

Between the spinous pro- 
cesses of the six inferior 
cervical vertebrae. 

Between the transverse 
processes of the vertebrae. 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 



83 



Inserted into Use. 

The transverse processes To stretch the vertebrae 

of all the dorsal and one of the back, and keep the 

cervical vertebra. trunk erect. 

The middle of the os oc- To draw the head back- 

cipitis, at its tubercle. ward. 



The os occipitis, behind To draw the head back- 

the mastoid process of the ward, 
temporal bone. 

The upper angle of the To move the scapula for- 

scapula. ward and upward. 



The spinous processes of 
the four superior dorsal and 
the last cervical vertebrae. 

The spinous processes of 
the lumbar, dorsal, and cer- 
vical vertebrae, except the 
atlas. 

The spinous processes of 
the five middle cervical. 

The transverse processes 
of the cervical vertebrae. 

The lower ridge of the os 
occipitis. 

The os occipitis at its tu- 
bercle. 

The end of the lower oc- 
cipital ridge. 

The transverse process of 
the atlas. 

The transverse processes 
of the cervical vertebrae. 

The spinous processes of 
the vertebrae above. 



To extend the spine ob- 
liquely backward. 

To extend the back, and 
draw it backward, or to one 
side, and prevent the spine 
from being too much bent 
forward. 

To stretch the neck ob- 
liquely backward. 

To turn the neck oblique- 
ly backward, and to one 
side. 

To extend the head, and 
draw it backward. 

To assist the rectus ma- 
jor. 

To draw the head back- 
ward. 

To draw the face to one 
side. 

To move the neck for- 
ward, or to one side. 

To draw the spinous pro- 
cesses towards each other. 



The transverse processes To draw the transverse 
of the vertebrae above. processes towards each 

other. 



84 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 



MUSCLES OF THE SUPERIOR EXTREMITIES. 



Name, 
Supra-spinatus. 

Infra spinatus. 



Arises from 

The basis, spine, and up- 
per end of the scapula. 

The cavity below the 
spine of the scapula. 



Fig. 39. 




Explanation of Fig. 39. 



a, The supra-spinatus. 

b, The infra spinatus. 

c, The teres minor. 

d, The teres major. 

e, The latissimus dorsi. 

f, The deltoid. 

g, The triceps extensor cubiti. 

Teres minor. 
Teres major. 
Deltoides. 



Coraco brachialis. 



The inferior edge of the 
scapula. 

The in r erior angle and 
edge of the scapula. 

The clavicle, and the 
acromion and spine of the 
scapula. 

The coracoid process of 
the scapula. 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 



85 



MCJSCLES OF THE SUPERIOR EXTREMITIES. 



Inserted into 

A large tuberosity at the 
head of the os humeri. 

The upper part of the 
same tuberosity. 



Use. 
To raise the arm. 

To roll the os humeri 
outward. 



Anatomists have sought for an explanation of the superiority of the 
right hand over the left, in the muscles, arteries and nerves of tne arm ; 
but no very satisfactory light has been thrown upon the subject. At one 
time, it was a common mode of getting over the difficulty, to say that the 
preference we give to the right hand arises from its superior strength ; 
and that quality is owing to the manner in which the artery arises from 
the arch of the aorta, just above the heart. There is certainly a consi- 
derable difference in the size of the arteries in the two arms. The right, 
in this respect being the largest, derives its blood more directly from the 
fountain-head. As the power of the muscle actually depends on the blood 
circulated in its substance, it was very natural to refer the origin of its su- 
perior force to this cause. Here the inquiry has rested, so far as anatomi- 
cal demonstration is concerned. But a formidable objection to that old- 
fashioned theory arises, when we find a left-handed man, whose arm does 
not differ essentially from any other person's left arm ; and ambidexters, 
men using one hand just as well as the other, for example, in writing, 
throwing balls, turning a gimblet, using a cabinet-maker's plane, &c, 
seem to be entirely out of the reach of the old stereotyped theory about 
the artery. The preference given to the right hand conduces to its 
muscular development ; it is both larger and stronger by use. So it is 
with the right foot ; and hence the extreme difficulty with some of wear- 
ing a pair of shoes made on one last. 

The evidence is pretty conclusive, from the universality of the law, 
which embraces all the inferior animals, as well as man, that the limbs 
on one side of the body possess certain physical advantages over the 
other. Both rapidity of motion and strength are thus combined, 
constantly improved upon by practice, and a certain mechanical excel- 
lence is thus bestowed, wittiout which we should be incompetent to the 
discharge of those duties which devolve upon us. 



The greater tuberosity of 
the humerus. 

The side of the groove for 
the long tendon of the biceps. 

The anterior and middle 
part of the os humeri. 



The middle and 
side of the os humeri. 
8 



inner 



To assist the former. 

To assist in rotating the 
arm. 

To raise the arm. 



To roll the 
and upward. 



arm forward 



86 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 



MUSCLES SITUATED ON THE OS HUMERI. 



Name. 
Subscapularis. 

Biceps flexor cubiti. 



Brachialis interims. 
Triceps extensor cubiti. 
Anconeus. 

MUSCLES SITUATED 

Supinator radii longus. 

Extensor carpi radialis 
longior. 

Extensor carpi radialis 
brevior. 

Extensor digitorum com- 
munis. 

Extensor minimi digiti. 

Extensor carpi ulnaris. 
Flexor carpi ulnaris. 
Palmaris longus. 

Flexor carpi radialis. 
Pronator radii teres. 

Supinator radii brevis. 



Arises from 

The basis, superior and 
inferior edge of the scapula. 

Two heads, one from the 
coracoid process, the other, 
called the long head, from 
the edge of the glenoid cavi- 
ty of the scapula. 

The os humeri at each 
side of the tendon of the 
deltoides. 

The neck of the scapula, 
and the neck and middle of 
the humerus. 

The external condyle of 
the humerus. 

ON THE FORE-ARM. 

The external condyle of 
the humerus. 

The external condyle of 
the humerus. 

The external condyle of 
the humerus. 

The external condyle of 
the os humeri. 

The outer condyle of the 
humerus. 

The outer condyle of the 
os humeri. 

The inner condyle of the 
humerus and olecranon. 

The internal condyle of 
the os humeri. 

The internal condyle of 
the os humeri. 

The internal condyle of 
the humerus and coroniod 
process of the ulna. 

The outer condyle of the 
humerus and edge e*" *he 
ulna. 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 



87 



MUSCLES SITUATED ON THE OS HUMERI. 

Inserted into Use. 

The protuberance at the To roll the arm inward, 
head of the os humeri. 

The tuberosity at the up- To bend the fore-arm, 

per end of the radius, at its which it does with great 
fore part, and a little below strength, and to assist the 

its neck, supinators. 

The coronoid process of To assist in bending the 

the ulna, fore-arm. 



The upper and outer part 
of the olecranon. 



To extend the fore-arm. 



The back part or ridge of To assist in extending the 
the ulna. fore-arm. 

MUSCLES SITUATED ON THE FORE-ARM. 



The radius near the sty- 
loid process. 

The metacarpal bone of 
the fore finger. 

The metacarpal bone of 
the middle finger. 

The back of all the bones 
of the fingers. 

The second joint of the 
little finger. 

The metacarpal bone of 
the little finger. 

The os pisiforme, at its 
fore part. 

The annular ligament of 
the wrist, and there forms 
the aponeurosis of the hand. 

The metacarpal bone of 
the fore finger. 

The outer ridge of the 
radius, about the middle of 
its length. 

The anterior, inner, and 
upper part of the radius. 



To assist in turning up 
the palm of the hand. 
To extend the wrist. 

To assist the former. 

To extend the fingers. 

To assist in extending the 
fingers. 

To assist in extending the 
wrist. 

To assist in bending the 
hand. 

To bend the hand. 

To bend the hand. 

To roll the hand inward. 



To roll the radius out- 
ward, and assist the anco- 
neus. 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 



Name. Arises from 

Extensor ossis metacarpi The middle of the ulna, 
pollicis manus. interosseous ligament and 

radius. 



Fig. 40. 



Fig. 41. 



w%s 




ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 89 

Inserted into Use. 

The os trapezium, and To stretch the first bone 

first bone of the thumb. of the thumb outward. 



Explanation of Fig. 40. 

f s extensor digitorum communis, for extending the fingers ; h, extensor 
proprius minimi digiti, to extend the little finger ; f where it unites 
with others ; i, extensor- carpi ulnaris ; I, anconeus, extensor ossis metecarpi 
pollicis ; e, extensor primi internodii pollicis ; e, extensor secundi inter- 
nodii pollicis ; d, indicator ; g, annular ligament of the wrist; m, will 
be recognised; k, an abductor of the little finger ; e, supinator radii Ion- 
gus. 



Explanation of Fig. 41. 

a, pronator teres ; o, flexor carpi radialis ; c, d, palmaris longus ; 
e t flexor carpi ulnaris; g, flexor carpi radialis longoir. 

Between the elbow and ends of the fingers there are about fifty mus- 
cles. Some of them, particularly those by the sides of the fingers, are 
quite short and delicate. All the quick, short motions of the fingers are 
made by them. Their name, musculi fidicinales, fiddling muscles, in 
old booKS, is quite appropriately given, because the strings of the instru- 
ment are operated upon almost entirely by them. A back and front 
view of the fore-arm is presented in the opposite page, Fig's 40 and 41, 
in which all the long muscles, on the inside flexors, and on the back of 
the arm extensors, may be very accurately observed. Just under the 
skin, a silvery, tough membrane, like a silk case, is drawn closely _over 
the muscles, to keep them from swelling too much in their contractions. 
Arbefore remarked, the strength which a muscle exerts, by being pressed 
down to the bone, when in action, is increased a hundred fold. The 
beauty and proportion of the limb is wholly preserved by the case, which 
is called fascia. It is taken away, in these plans, in order to show more 
distinctly the parts below. 

Individuals having five fingers, not an uncommon circumstance in the 
New England States, in the families bearing the name of Kendall, or 
those intimately related to them, — the extra finger has rarely had a flexor 
or extensor muscle. In one instance I have seen a young gentleman 
having five fingers ; the last and smallest of the series being as liberally 
supplied with muscular apparatus as any of them : he also had six toes 
on each foot, equally well supplied with muscles. 

Persons have recently been exhibited, born without arms, who were 
very expert with their toes, in holding scissors, whittling, mending pens, 
shooting with bows and arrows, opening watches, painting landscapes, 
with nearly as much adroitness as others could perform the same pro- 
cesses by their fyands, &c, which merely shows that muscles can be 
taught. 

8* 



90 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 



Name. Arises from 

Extensor primi internodii. Near the middle of the 

ulna, interosseous ligament, 
and radius. 
Extensor secundi interno- The back of the ulna an«J 
dii. interosseous ligament. 

Indicator. The middle of the ulna 



Fig: 42. 



Fig. 43. 




\: 



m. 



v6 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 91 

Inserted into Use. 

The convex part of the To extend the second 

second bone of the thumb. bone of the thumb outward. 

The third and last bone To stretch the thumb ob- 

of the thumb. liquely backward. 

The metacarpal bone of To extend the fore finger, 
the fore finger. 



Explanation of Fig. 42. 

d, e, fexor digitorum sublimis, attached to the second bone of each 
finger, by four tendons, to bend the second joint; f,h, Jlexor longus 
vollicis rnanus, to bend the thumb ; a, b, c, pronator teres, to pronate the 
nand ; g, a slit in the tendons of the flexor digitorum, for the passage of 
four other tendons of another muscle which go to the points of the fingers, 
for bending the last joint. 



Explanation of Fig. 43. 

c, d, d, the pronator quadratics, is one of two small muscles for pronat- 
ing the hand ; a } b, the other, pronator teres. 

In Fig's 42 and 43, the muscles are distinctly engraven which roll the 
fore-arm in supination and pronation. By turning a key in a door-lock, 
both sets are called into action, and it is recommended to the reader to 
do it, and at the same time to feel the contractions of the muscles with 
the other hand. Fig. 43, the bones are made so plain as to show the 
exact relation which the pronators have to them. On the other Fig. e, 

gomts to the four tendons of the muscle that bends the last bone of the 
ngers. Looking back to Fig. 41, page 88, it is there concealed by the 
flexor of the second bone of the fingers. This, in order to reach its place 
of destination, pierces, as it were, the tendons of the upper muscle, and 
thus sends its own tendons onward, through the slit. 

There may be many readers who will find it difficult to understand, 
from an examination of the plates, the machinery of the hand, to produce 
such a multitude of distinct, rapid motions. As'it is not always possible 
to see anatomical preparations, a little care in the examination of a cat's 
paw, for example, or the legs of a chicken, will make the subject perfectly 
plain. In either case, one set of tendons are perforated, for the purpose 
of allowing others to go farther. Nothing could have been more admi- 
rably contrived. An approximation towards the principle of the mechan- 
ism of these and various tribes of carnivorous animals, invariably having 
claws, may be examined in the termination of the muscles towards the 
hoof, in all the domesticated or social animals. 



92 ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 

Name. Arises from 

Flexor digitorum subli- The inner condyle of the 
mis. os humeri, coronoid process 

of the ulna, and upper part 
of the radius. 
Flexor digitorum profun- The upper part of the 
dus vel perforans. ulna, and interosseous liga- 

ment. 
Flexor longus pollicis. The upper and fore part 

of the radius. 
Pronator radii quadratus. The inner and lower part 

of the ulna. 

MUSCLES SITUATED CHIEFLY ON THE HAND. 

Lumbricales. The tendons of the flexor 

profundus. 
Flexor brevis pollicis ma- The os trapezoides, liga- 
nus. ment of the wrist, and the 

os magnum. 
Opponens pollicis. The os scaphoid es and 

ligament of the wrist. 
Abductor pollicis manus. The annular ligament, 

and os trapezium. 
Abductor pollicis manus. The metacarpal bone of 

the middle finger. 
Adductor indicis manus. The first bone of the 

thumb, and os trapezium. 
Palmaris brevis. The annular ligament, 

and palmar aponeurosis. 
Abductor minimi digiti The annular ligament and 
manus. os pisiforme. 

Abductor minimi digiti. The os cuneiform and car- 

pal ligament. 
Flexor parvus minimi The annular ligament and 
digiti. os cuneiform. 

Interossei interni, and The metacarpal bones. 

Interossei externi. 

MUSCLES OF THE INFERIOR EXTREMITIES. 

Pectinalis. The anterior edge of the 

os pubis. 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 



93 



Inserted into 

The second bone of each 
finger, after being perforated 
by the tendons of the pro- 
fundus. 

The fore part of the last 
bone of each of the fingers. 



Use. 

To bend the second joint 
of the fingers upon the first, 
and the first upon the meta- 
carpal bones. 

To bend the last joint of 
the fingers. 



The last joint of the To bend the last joint of 

thumb. the thumb. 

The radius opposite to its To roll the radius in- 

origin. ward. 

MUSCLES SITUATED CHIEFLY ON THE HAND. 



The tendons of the exten- 
sor digitorum communis. 

The ossa sesatnoidea and 
second bone of the thumb. 



To bend the first and ex- 
tend the second phalanx. 

To bend the second joint 
of the thumb. 



first bone of the To bend the thumb. 



The 
thumb. 

The root of the first bone 
of the thumb. 

The root of the first bone 
of the thumb. 

The first bone of the fore 
finger posteriorly. 

The metacarpal bone and 
skin of the little finger. 

The first bone of the little 
finger. 

The metacarpal bone of 
the little finger. 

The first bone of the little 
finger. 

The sides of the metacar- 
pal bones. 



To draw the thumb from 
the fingers. 

To pull the thumb toward 
the fingers. 

To move the fore finger 
towards* the thumb. 

To contract the palm of 
the hand. 

To draw the little finger 
from the rest. 

To move that bone toward 
the rest. 

To draw the little finger 
from the rest. 

To extend the fingers, 
and move them toward the 
thumb. 



MUSCLES OF THE INFERIOR EXTREMITIES. 

^ The upper part of the To bend the thigh, 
linea aspera of the femur. 



94 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 



J3 
v2 


Name. 

Adductor longus 
moris. 


fe 


s-« 
O 

1' 


Adductor brevis 
moris. 


fe 




Adductor magnus 
} moris. 


fe 



Arises from 
The upper and fore part 
of the pubis. 

The fore part and ramus 
of the os pubis. 

The lower and fore part 
of the ramus of the pubis. 



Fig. 44. 




Explanation of Fig, 44. 
c, The gluteus medius. 
rf, The pyriformis. 

e, The geminus superior. 

f, The geminus inferior. 

g, The obturator internus. 

f,* The quadrator femoris. 
, The biceps flexor cruris. 

i, The semitendinosus. 

k ) The semimembranosus. 

7, The superficial gluteal ar- 
tery and nerve. 

w, The great ischiatic nerve. 

n, The ischiatic artery. 

o, The popliteal nerve. 

p, The fibular or peroneal 
nerve. 

q t The popliteal vein. 

r, The popliteal artery. 

s, The internal pudic artery, 
vein, and nerve. * 

t, t> The muscles on the ante- 
p rior part of the thigh. 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 95 

Inserted into Use. 

The middle and back part To bend the thigh. 
of the linea aspera. 

The inner and upper part To bend the thigh, and 

of the linea aspera. move it inward. 

The whole length of the To move the thigh inward, 

linea aspera. and assist in bending it. 



Besides the muscles, nerves, veins, tendons, bands, and ligaments, 
there are absorbents, an exceedingly minute class of tubes, of the utmost 
importance in the animal economy. From the inner edge of the great 
toe to the groin, there is a chain of "absorbents, resembling, when magni- 
fied by a lens, a multitude of threaded eggs. It is the office of the ab- 
sorbents to pick up whatever might otherwise have been wasted, and 
return it to the heart, that it may be appropriated to the wants of the 
body. These egg-shaped particles are receiving organs, immensely 
larger than the tubes which bring into them the fluids they suck up about 
the muscles. By tbe agency of these small bodies, which are greedy to 
seize whatever is presented to them, the phvsician is able to convey 
medicines into the circulation, when they could not be taken into the 
stomach. It may be desirable to salivate' or, in other words, to increase 
the quantity of fluid in the mouth, in order to overcome some local dis- 
ease, but as mercury, in the form best adapted to produce that effect, 
would be injurious to swallow, it is rubbed on the skin, over these lym- 
phatics or absorbents, being called by either name, which at once convey 
it into the blood; but being offensive and injurious to the body, another 
set of vessels discover the presence of the unwelcome visiter, and speedily 
go to work to throw it out of the system. In the case of mercury, it is 
conveyed out at the mouth, and thegreat flow of saliva, which keeps up 
a constant spitting, is nothing more than nature's scheme to wash away 
the noxious matter. 

These absorbents sometimes suck in a poisonous matter: here an 
action at once takes place, of an extraordinary character. It seems as 
though the lymphatic, thus loaded, was conscious of its destructive bur- 
den, and instead of allowing it to flow to the next one, towards the heart, 
it inflames, bursts open, and discharges its contents in the form of a sore. 
Sometimes this ulceration may extend to the neighboring lymphatic, and 
so the disease be propagated even into the cavities of the body. If a ser- 

Sent's fang wound the skin, the absorbents convey the venom onward, 
ke couriers, to head-quarters, the heart, whence it is distributed at once 
through the system. If a bee stings, the poison is ushered along by the 
same organs." 

The absorbents are exceedingly active agents, but so small that their 
existence was unknown a long time after the discovery of the circula- 
tion. 



96 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 



Name. 
Obturator externus. 

Gluteus maximus. 



Gluteus medius. 
Gluteus minimus. 

Pyriformis. 
Gemini. 
Quadratus femoris. 



Arises from 

The obturator ligament, 
and half of the thyroid hole. 

The spine of the ilium, 
posterior sacro ischiatic lig- 
aments, and os sacrum. 

The spine and superior 
surface of the ilium. 

The outer surface of the 
ilium and border of its great 
notch. 

The anterior part of the 
os sacrum. 

The spine and tuberosity 
of the ischium. 

The tuberosity of the is- 
chium. 



MUSCLES SITUATED ON THE THIGH. 



Facialis, or 

Tensor vaginae femoris. 

Sartorius. 

Gracilis. 

Rectus femoris, or 
Rectus cruris. 

Vastus externus. 

Vastus" internus. 

Cruralis, or Crurseus. 

Semi-tendinosus. 

Semi-membranosus. 



The upper spinous pro- 
cess of the ilium. 

The upper spinous pro- 
cess of the ilium. 

The fore part of the is- 
chium and pubis. 

The lower spinous process 
of the ilium, and edge of the 
acetabulum. 

The root of the great tro- 
chanter, and linea aspera. 

The trochanter minor, and 
the linea aspera. 

The anterior part of the 
lesser trochanter. 

The tuberosity of the is- 
chium. 

The tuberosity of the is- 
chium. 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 



97 



Inserted into Use. 

The femur near the root To pull forward and ro- 
of the great trochanter. tate the thigh. 

The upper part of the To extend the thigh, and 

linea aspera of the femur. assist in its rotatory motion. 

The great trochanter of To assist the gluteus 

the os femoris. maximus. 

The root of the great tro- To assist the two former, 
chanter. 



A cavity at the root of the 
great trochanter. 

The same cavity as the 
pyriformis. 

A ridge between the two 
trochanters. ward 



To roll the thigh outward. 
To roll the thigh outward. 
To move the thigh out- 



MUSCLES SITUATED ON THE THIGH. 

To stretch the fascia. 



The inner side of the 
membranous fascia which 
covers the thigh. 

The upper and inner part 
of the tibia. 

The upper and inner part 
of the tibia. 

The upper and fore part 
of the patella. 



To bend the leg inward. 
To bend the leg. 
To extend the leg. 



To extend the leg. 
To extend the leg. 
To extend the leg. 



The upper and lateral 
part of the patella. 

The upper and inner part 
of the patella. 

The upper part of the 
patella. 

The upper and inner part To bend and draw the 
of the tibia. leg inward. 

The back part of the head To bend the leg. 
of the tibia. 

9 



98 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 
Fig. 45. 




Explanation of Fig. 
45. 

a, The tensor vagi- 
nae femoris. 

b j The sartorius. 

c, The rectus femo- 
ris. 

rf, The vastus exter- 
nus. 

e, The vastus inter- 
nes. 

f t The pectinalis. 

g- t The adductor Ion - 
gus. 

h } The adductor 
magnus. 

i, The gracilis. 

Z, Iliacus interims. 
; k, The anterior cru- 
ral nerve. 

m, The femoral ar- 
tery. 

n, The femoral vein . 

1, The external epi- 
gastric artery. 

2, The external cir- 
cumflexa ilii. 



Name. 
Biceps fluxor cruris. 

Popliteus. 



Arises from, 
The tuberosity of the is- 
chium. 



The external condyle of 
the thigh bone. 






ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK, 



To a person unaccustomed to anatomical language, the names of the 
muscles will undoubtedly appear exceedingly unmeaning, and difficult to 
pronounce. This is true as respects the pronunciation ; but the name, in 
a majority of cases, is really expressive, giving both origin and insertion. 
An example of this double office of the name may be noticed in stylo- 
glossus, meaning that it arises from the styloid process, and is inserted 
into the tongue. In hyo-glossus, the same advantage occurs : it simply 
informs us tnat it arises from the hyoideus, the bone of the tongue, and is 
inserted into the tongue. The muscles of the thigh and leg are particu- 
larly vexatious, in this respect, to a young beginner. However, by pa- 
tiently exercising the mind, in a little time the system becomes familiar. 

Though one bone only is embraced by the muscles of the thigh, the 
circumference is vastly greater of this part of the limb than the leg. 
This depends on the number and magnitude of the muscles, which pass 
ever the femoris, from the pelvis, to reach the bones of the leg below the 
knee joint. All the muscles on the fore part of the thigh come from the 
upper end of the bone, and the hip, or ilium, and instead of being at all 
devoted to the service of the bone over whose surface they run, they are 
all concentrated in the kneepan, and therefore belong to the leg, as its 
extensors or straighteners. So violently have they been known to con- 
tract, that they have actually broken the kneepan into two pieces, one 
half held by its ligament down to its place, but the other drawn by the 
uncontrolled energy of the muscles several inches up the thigh. When 
rising from a sitting posture, the entire weight of the body is raised by 
these same muscles ; but they would be inadequate to the task, were it 
not for the sliding of the kneepan up the thigh, thereby increasing the 
power, by removing the fulcrum from the centre of motion, till the body 
is erect, when it slips into a pit, made by the meeting of the ends of the 
thigh and leg bones. While sitting, the' muscles being at rest, the knee- 
pan falls into the space between the ends of the bones, made by bending 
the limb. It is on this principle that the sesamoid bones are thrown in 
under the tendons of the toes, to increase the power of the flexor, by 
removing the centre of motion further from the joint. This is a plan of 
nature's to protect the toe, which, being over worked, would be ruined, 
were not an immediate provision made for increasing its power to meet 
the exigency of the case. 



Inserted into Use. 

The upper and back part To bend the leg. 
of the tibia, forming the 
outer hamstring. 

The upper and inner part To assist in bending the 
of the tibia. leg. 



100 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 



Fig. 46. 




MUSCLES SITUATED ON THE LEG. 



Name. Arises from 

Gastrocnemius extemus, The internal and external 
or Gemellus. condyle of the femur. 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 101 



Explanations of Fig, 46. 



a, Tensor vagina femoris. 

b, Sartorius reflected. 

c, Rectus reflected. 

d, Vastus externus. 

e, Vastus internus, pulled outward. 

f, Pectinalis reflected. 

g, Adductor longus reflected. 
h, Adductor magnus. 

i, Gracilis. 

k, Iliacus internus. 

/, The anterior crural nerve. 

m, The femoral artery. 

5, The arteria profunda. 

6, The external circumflex artery. 

7, The internal circumflex artery. 
?i, The femoral vein. 

o, The cruralis. 

p, The adductor brevis. 

q, The obdurator artery and nerve. 

o, The cruralis, vel crureus. 

p. The adductor brevis. 



Were it not for the tendons of the vast number of muscles which slide 
by the knee joint, as remarked in speaking of the anatomy of the bones, 
triis would have been an imperfect articulation. Behind, the hamstrings 
contribute, on either side, to the formation of a canal, in which the artery, 
vein and great nerve of the leg, carefully cushioned in a quantity of fat, 
lie so securely, that they very rarely come to any injury. One object of 
introducing Fig. 46, opposite, was to show the general relation of some 
of the blood-vessels, the nerve that supplies the fore part of- the thigh, 
and to exhibit the muscles already shown in a preceding figure, different- 
ly displayed, which have such a bearing on the anatomy of the joint. 
Several of the long ones are divided, in order to give a clearer view of 
those which would otherwise be too much hidden to be understood. 
The sartorius or tailor's muscle, so called because it crosses the legs, is 
marked c, the upper portion being taken away to show i, the gracilis. 
In nearly all operations on the artery of the thigh, the surgeon is 
guided by the edge of the sartorius, a sure index. It also contributes to 
the lateral security of the knee. 



i 



MUSCLES SITUATED ON THE LEG. 

Inserted into Use. 

The os calcis, with the To extend the foot, 
tendon of the soleus. 

9* 



102 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 



Name. Arises from 

Gastrocnemius internus, or The head of the fibula, 
Soleus. and back part of the head 

of the tibia. 
Plantaris. The outer condyle of the 

- os femoris and capsular lig- 
ament. 



Fig. 47. 



Fig. 48. 




ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 103 

Inserted into Use. 

The os calcis, by a com- To extend the foot, 
mon tendon, which is called 
tendo Achilis. 

The os calcis, near the To assist in extending the 
tendo Achilis. foot. 



Explanations of Fig. 47. 

h % The tibialis anticus. 

i, The extensor longus digitorum. 

k } The peroneus tertius. 

/, The extensor longus, or proprius pollicis. 

m, The extensor digitorum brevis. 

n, The peroneus longus. 

o, The peroneus brevis. 

p, The annular ligament. 



Explanations of Fig. 43. 

h, The tibialis anticus. 

i, The extensor longus digitorum. 

I, The extensor longus pollicis. 

q, The anterior tibial artery. 

r. The anterior tibial nerve. 



A similar provision is made in the leg for keeping the muscles down 
to their proper places, that has been noticed in the fore-arm. Those 
bands, called annular ligaments, which encircle the ankle, to prevent the 
tendons, as they run upon the top of the instep, from flying out from the 
bones, in a high state of contraction, must excite admiration. This they 
have a constant tendency to do. If a person is walking up a flight of 
stairs on his toes, he will then perceive the strong action of the tendons, 
and the reaction of the ligaments upon them. All those animals which 
climb, as squirrels, monkeys, bears, and some others, have the fascia or 
limb cases much thicker, in proportion to the size of the body, than in 
man. All the tendons of the toes and fingers are bound down to the bones 
by inelastic bands, in a similar manner. Birds, particularly those that 
roost, have a beautiful web of ligamentary threads w T ound round the leg, 
just above the toes, for restraining the tendons. 

Fig. 46 displays an intricate mass of muscles, originating between the 
upper extremities of the leg bones, For nearly a foot below the knee, it 
is difficult to designate one from the other, on account of the interming- 
ling of the fibres. However, the tendons of each are distinct. No im- 
portant vessels or nerves are exposed on the skin: on the opposite side, 
however, they are to be found, safely protected by muscles, bones and 
fascia. 



104 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 



Name. 
Tibialis anticus. 

Tibialis posticus. 



Arises from 

The upper and fore part 
of the tibia. 

The back part of the tibia, 
interosseous ligament, and 
adjacent part of the fibula. 



Fig. 49. 



Fig. 50. 





ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 105 

Inserted into Use. 

The os cuneiform inter- To bend the foot, 
num. 

The middle cuneiform To move the foot inward, 
bone, and upper part of the 
os naviculare. 



Explanations of Fig. 49. 

q, The plantaris. 
r, The popliteus. 
s, The soleus. 

t, The biceps, forming the outer hamstring. 

u, u, The semitendinosus and semimembranosus, forming the inner 
hamstring. 



About the knee and ankle joints bone-setters have played, and are 
still playing, a high-handed game of quackery and imposition. On that 
account," therefore, it has been an important object to embody as much 
general information in relation to the anatomy of the lower limbs as possi- 
ble, and at the same time avoid writing a professional essay on the diseases 
and incidents to which they are particularly predisposed. Three bones 
only enter into the composition of the knee joint ; yet in this land of com- 
mon sense individuals injure the articulation, and have it made well, by 
the reduction of six or seven ! The ankle joint, made up entirely of three 
bones, is often cured by having several little bones thrust into place ! 

In the immediate neighborhood of these joints, a multitude of tendons 
have been seen, in the preceding diagrams, on which their perfection 
depends. By a thousand accidents to which they are exposed, the ten- 
don of a particular muscle may be so prodigiously strained as finally to 
become inflamed. No pain is more severe nor more tedious in point of 
duration than sprains, or over stretching of the tendons and ligaments. 
Though slow to feel, when once roused they are as difficult to manage 
as the bones, because they possess a vitality so low and so far removed 
from the sensibility of the soft parts, that remedies are a long time in 
effecting a restoration. To an inflammation therefore, and not to the out- 
of-joint condition of the little bones, is to be imputed the cause of pro- 
tracted lameness in a majoritv of cases. The metatarsal bones of the 
instep are not thrown out of place once in a hundred instances where it 
is supposed they are. 



106 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 



Name. 
Peroneus longus. 

Peroneus brevis. 

Extensor longus digito- 
rum pedis. 

Extensor proprius pollicis 
pedis. 

Flexor longus digitorum 
pedis, profundus, perforans. 



dis. 



Flexor longus pollicis pe- 



Arises from 

The head of the tibia, and 
upper and outer part of the 
fibula. 

The outer and fore part 
of the fibula. 

The upper part of the tibia, 
interosseous ligament, and 
inner edge of the fibula. 

The upper and fore par/ 
of the tibia; 

The upper and inner part 
of the tibia. 

A little below the head 
of the fibula. 



Fig. 51. 




Explanations of Fig. 51. 
f f, The external plantar artery. 
J ff, The internal plantar. 

X, The tendon of the flexor longus pollicis. 
i, The tendons of the flexor longus digito- 
rum. 
.£ j.j\ The massa carnea Jacobi Sylvii. 
k k y k, k, The lumbricales. 



MUSCLES CHIEFLY SITUATED ON THE FOOT. 

Extensor brevis digitorum The upper and anterior 
pedis. part of the os calcis. 

Flexor brevis digitorum The lower part of the os 
pedis, perforatus sublimis. calcis. 



A3AT03IICAL CLASS BOOK. 



107 



Inserted into 
The metatarsal bone of 
the great toe. 

The metatarsal bone of 
the little toe. 

The first joint of the small 
toes by the four tendons. 



Use. 
To move the foot out- 
ward. 

To assist the peroneus 
longus. 

To extend the toes, and 
separate them from one an- 
other. 

To extend the great toe. 



To bend the last joint of 



The convex surface of the 
bones of the great toe. 

The last bones of all the 
toes, except the great toe, by the toes 
four tendons. 

The last bone of the great To bend the great toe. 
toe. 



Notwithstanding the multitude of bands, muscles, cords and vessels, 
were it not for the broad sheet in the sole of the foot, reaching from the 
heel to the roots of the toes, like the sole of a shoe, all the parts we have 
been considering would have been inadequate to its security. The plan- 
taris, the name of this ligament, binds the arch of the foot, and effectually 
prevents the bones from being spread apart, and at the same time consti- 
tutes a firm external defence lor the muscles, nerves and vessels. A 
similar broad ligament exists in the palm of the hand, for the same pur- 
pose. 

One reason why wounds in the sole of the foot are so painful and dan- 
gerous, when made, for example, by treading on a nail, arises from the 
injury the muscles suffer behind this aponeurosis or insensible membrane. 
A great number of tendons, arteries, and nerves are compressed into small 
channels ; and hence incisions from the bottom are always attended with 
hazard. 



3IUSCLES CHIEFLY SITUATED ON THE FOOT. 



The first bone of the great 
and other toes, except the 
little. 

The second phalanx of 
each of the small toes, by 
four tendons, which are per- 
forated by those of the flex, 
long. dig. ped. 



To extend the toes. 



To bend the second joint 
of the toes. 



108 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 



Name. 
Lumbricales pedis. 

Flexor brevis pollicis pe- 
dis. 

Abductor pollicis pedis. 

Adductor pollicis pedis. 

Abductor minimi digiti 
pedis. 

Flexor brevis minimi di- 
giti pedis. 

Transversales pedis. 

Interossei pedis interni. V 

Interossei pedis externi. ) 



Arises from 

The tendons of the flexor 
longus digitorum pedis. 

The fore part of the os 
calcis, and external cunei- 
form bone. 

The inner and lower part 
of the os calcis. 

The ligament extended 
from the os calcis to the os 
cuboides. 

The tuber of the os calcis, 
and metatarsal bone of the 
little toe. 

, The root of the metatarsal 
bone of the little toe. 

The ligament connecting 
the bones of the tarsus. 

The metatarsal bones. 







Explanations of Fig. 52. 
_r Z, The plantar arch. 
s m, The flexor brevis pollicis. 

Jrij The adductor pollicis. 
jk o, The flexor brevis minimi digiti. 

Wfi ° P* ^^ e tratlsversa ^ s pedis. 

LyM»\ q £, The interossei. 

:\»M» i r, The long ligament of the calcis. 

~p s, The tendon of the peroneus longus. 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 



109 



Inserted into 

The tendinous expansion 
at the upper part of the toes. 

The first joint of the great 
toe, by two tendons. 

The first joint of the great 
toe. 

The"outer sesamoid bone, 
or first joint of the great toe. 

The first joint of the little 
toe externally. 

The root of the first bone 
of the little toe. 

The tendon of the adduc- 
tor pollicis. 

The metatarsal bones. 



Use. 

To draw the toes inward. 

To bend the first joint of 
the great toe. 

To move the great toe 
from the rest. 

To draw the great toe 
nearer to the rest, and to 
bend it. 

To draw the little toe out- 
ward. 

To bend the little toe, 

To contract the foot. 



To draw the smaller 
toes towards the great toe, 
and assist in extending 
^the toes. 



10 



110 ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOR. 



APPARATUS OF JOINTS, 

OH BURSOLOGY. 

WiTKiN the joints, or in their immediate vicinity, there 
are small sacs* containing a glairy, oily fluid, which is 
poured out between the articulating surfaces, to prevent 
friction; the name of this substance is synovia. Upon the 
same principle that any machinery is kept oiled, the joints 
are lubricated. When the secretion of the synovia is 
imperfect, or scantily effused into the joint, the highly 
polished surfaces of the cartilages become rough, dry, and 
subsequently inflamed. 

Even in the sheaths of the tendons, these oiPbags are 
considerably numerous. About the wrist; elbow, shoul- 
der, hip, knees, and ankle, they are large, but of various 
shapes, according to the space afforded them. Where 
the most motion is required, there are the largest sacs, 
secreting and throwing into the place a copious quantity 
of the oil. A disease of the bursce mucosce, which is the 
scientific name of the sacs, is familiarly known as the 
white swelling, particularly of the hip and knee. 



FLUIDS, OR ANGIOLOGY. 

THE HEART AND CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD. 

The ancients were totally ignorant of the circulation of 
the blood. 

By a long course of observations, it was commonly ad- 
mitted that there were in man, for example, two sets of 

Of what does bursology treat? sacs placed? 

Describe the object of the synovial Are they ever diseased? 

fluid with the joints ? What is angiology ? 
Where are the largest of these 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. Ill 

tubes, which extend through the body, and they assigned 
to each many absurd and ridiculous functions. 

As one set of vessels were superficial, directly under 
the skin, filled with the venous blood, which quietly mov- 
ed along the smooth duct, from some unknown point to 
another equally obscure, they were fully satisfied that it 
belonged, in some way, to the body. On the other hand, 
by various accidents, they had frequent opportunities of 
viewing the deeper seated vessels, throbbing and jetting 
blood in recent wounds ; but as the color of their contents 
was different from that in the veins, and the activity that 
was manifested by these tubes, when exposed to their 
astonished vision, altogether different from the motionless 
veins, the idea was at once admitted that these, which 
were denominated arteries, constituted the laboratory of 
the animal spirits, or in the arteries that the powers of the 
soul were generated, in combination with atmospheric air, 
which found its way into the reservoirs of life, through 
the puffing and blowing exercises of the lungs. When 
the artery was cut, and the warm blood was forced out 
by strong pulsations, then the spirit within was angry, 
and so vented its displeasure and spite, like a snarling 
child, by spurting out its own precious self through the 
incidental aperture. 

Upon notions as rational as these, learned men con- 
structed some of the strangest theories that ever beset the 
imagination. When the whole subject of the use of the 
arteries and veins was supposed to be clearly understood, 
those sage investigators of the sublime and beautiful 
rested from the weight of their labors, and subsequently 
established certain doctrines, which held a despotic sway 
for centuries ; yet they were as far from truth as possi- 
ble, and, worse than all, no person of common sense dared 
to call them in question. 

Who but a blockhead would ever have entertained a 
notion like this, viz. that the blood ran out from the heart 
through the day, or while one was awake, and returned 
again at night, when the individual retired to his slum- 
bers ! Who but a profound dunce would have suggested 
the novel theory that weariness, the sensation of being 
tired, was in consequence of being so long awake, that 
the blood had all run out from the fountain-head : and 

Where did the ancients suppose the animal spirits elaborated? 



112 ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 

when one could not move any longer, from complete 
exhaustion, why nature indicated at once what was to be 
done : only lay the poor sufferer on a bed, the recumbent 
posture being highly favorable, the blood immediately 
took a downhill direction, and when it had all reached 
home, and was snugly settled down in one of the cham- 
bers of the heart, the tendency to death was suspended, 
the man recovered his accustomed strength, and bright 
and early the next morning the same truant blood was 
ready to travel over the old ground again ! 

Thus it will be plainly understood, that the arteries 
were expressly set apart as a habitation for the spirit or 
vital principle : the veins, because they were less noble, 
were on the outside, while the others within were exclu- 
sively appropriated to the to and fro, night and morning 
circulation of the blood. 

Another discovery, equally surprising, and in exact 
keeping with the foregoing arrangement, related to the 
heart. They saw a little thing carefully boxed up in the 
chest, between the right and left lung, which to all intents 
and purposes satisfied the student of nature that it was 
very hot, or it. would not have been confined and sur- 
rounded by two great bags of wind : it was kept tolerably 
cool by constant respiration. 

The heart being decidedly a hot affair, there was a 
grand field for exclaiming and proclaiming the wisdom 
of nature, in providing such a delicate, and at the same 
time simple, but perfect contrivance for keeping down its 
temperature below the boiling point. It was laced up in 
a straight jacket, the pericardium, vulgarly called heart- 
case, of a texture so firm, that it was as self-evident as 
that the earth was the centre of the solar system, that 
this organ was liable to prodigious paroxysms of rage, 
and would burst from its prison, were it not thus secured. 
Two points were thus satisfactorily settled ; viz. that it 
was very hot, and very unruly. 

Again, — within, there were certain apartments, which 
took the sensible and significant names of auricles and 
ventricles, because the walls of the one bore some fanci- 
ful resemblance to the ears of a dog, but which, by the 
way, bear just as much resemblance to the horns of the 
new moon; and in these cavities certain curious opera- 
tions were going on, which none but very wise philoso- 
phers understood. These consisted in the mixing of air 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 113 

and blood, the instantaneous development of certain mat- 
ters and things which constituted life, and gun-powder 
like explosions, consequent upon the ingress of cold air 
in the furnace of the heart. 

In reality, had those investigating geniuses of the olden 
time, whom it is so fashionable to admire, so classical to 
praise, known any thing of the modern properties of the 
steam-engine, it is altogether probable they would have 
had much to say on the heart's property of generating 
power by converting its liquid contents into vapor, and, 
in the sequel, laboriously explained the causes which 
occasionally oppressed, which clogged the wheels of vital 
action, and which, in plainer language, sometimes burst 
the boiler. 

We have merely sketched an outline of the general 
views which were entertained of the physiology of the 
system by the ancients ; views, it would seem, so absurd 
that the reflections of a school-boy would have overturned 
them : yet, strange as it now appears, they were carefully 
transmitted from one generation to another, for many 
centuries, and treasured up as the profound discoveries 
of antiquity. 

THE HEART. 

It would seem, at first view, from the high office" of the 
heart, so constantly found in all animals with which we 
are familiar, that no organized being could possibly exist 
without it. Strange, however, as it may appear, there 
are various classes, in the lowest orders of animal crea- 
tion, which are totally destitute of it ; still, they have 
blood, which can under no circumstances be dispensed 
with ; but it is not propelled by one single organ through 
the vessels. There is a compensation, however, in the 
structure of the primitive vessels, or, to be understood, a 
blood-vessel takes upon itself all the functions of a heart, 
exerting by successive pulsations a power adequate to 
the physical requirements of the body in which it is 
found. 

Numerous, indeed, are the insects and vermin in 
which this kind of organization is discoverable. But it 
is not an organization favorable to longevity, for those in 

Do any exist without a heart ? 

10* 



114 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 



which this simple apparatus exists are the beings only of 
a day; they flit in the sunshine a few hours ; the object 
of their creation is attained, and they die. 

A resemblance to this sort of machinery is noticed in 
fishes ; though they have a heart, it is exceedingly imper- 
fect, when compared to the same organ in warm-blooded 
animals. 

Fig. 53. 




Explanation of Fig. 53. 

A, A, are the fringes of the gills, attached to half hoops of cartilage. 
These threads, which are of a bright red, are the extreme terminations 
of the branchial arteries; in an animal breathing air, the same vessels 
are called bronchial arteries. 

B, the ventricle of the heart, or forcing-pump, which drives the blood 
with which it is distended into a single artery. Just beyond B> the 
artery D divides into two branches, leading to the gills on either side, in 
equal quantities. Precisely like this is the right heart of man. Instead 
of being thrown into gills, the branches direct the blood into the lungs. 
C, the auricle, or first receiving cavity of the heart. All the veins of the 
body in all animals, whether belonging to the land or water, ultimately 
unite into one tube, and that empties its blood into the auricle. 

E. In this diagram, E is the branchial vein of the right gill, soon unit- 
ed to that from the left side. The blood has been changed in the gills, 
where it was sent by the heart, by being brought in contact with the air 
in the water, and now, being fit for the purposes of the system, is returned 
by these veins, to a great vessel lying under the back-bone. 

F. This is the reservoir of the revitalized blood : at its commence- 
ment in the gills it is like a vein, but the main trunk now assumes the 
functions of an artery, or indeed a second heart. It contracts and propels 
its contents over the body. Here then is a tube taking upon itself the 
office of the left heart of land animals. 

Reference might be made to very many curious modifications of this 
blood-propelling apparatus, positively necessary to the existence of alt 
organized beings, m the oyster, cuttle-fish, birds, lizards, serpents, tor- 
toises, frogs, tadpoles, and some other reptiles. 

The fish has but half a heart. All their blood — and in 
some of the huge monsters of the ocean there is a prodi- 
gious quantity — is sent its rounds by an artery, and not 
by a heart, or any particular part of one. A force is 



Describe the use of gills in fishes. 
Have aquatic animals a heart, in 



its organization, like that of the 
air-breathing animal 1 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 



115 



exerted by the contractions of a single vessel equal (for 
it must be in sharks of thirty feet in length) to a mode- 
rately sized fire-engine. The blood, by each pulsation, 
is driven through as much space in a given time as the 
water is thrown by the piston of the engine. 

In the mammalia, that is, animals breathing air, the 
heart is the centre of the circulation — the point from 
whence the blood starts, and the instrument of propulsion, 
by which it is kept going in an endless round, in the 
body. It is a forcing-pump, by which a column of fluid 
is raised, and an imitation of its mechanism may be ex- 
amined in machines used for filling tanks in upper apart- 
ments. One is self-moving, having incorporated within 
its own substance the wonderful power of generating 
physical strength; while in the other an extraneous force 
must be applied, somewhere, to put it in motion. 

In warm-blooded animals the heart is a compound en- 
gine. If we go back to the fishes it is there single ; but 
in man, quadrupeds and birds, it is double : they have 
two hearts, and both of them are forcing-pumps. Man 
has two hearts. By being united, less substance is re- 
quired; and the union of the two actually conduces to 
the greater muscular power of both. 

Fig. 54. 




Explanation of Fig. 54. 

By this engraving, the reader will readily understand what we mean 
by the two hearts of man, and other warm-blooded animals, as they are 



Where is the double heart found ? Explain the mechanism of the sin- 
Is the heart a forcing engine, or a gle heart ; also, that of the double 
passive, receiving organ ? one. 



116 ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 

here exhibited, and as they appear when dissected apart. Each one of 
them is a perfect organ by itself, and the one is perfectly independent of 
the other. That having the letter b upon it is the rig-fit heart, and that 
with a g-j the left. This is a front view, or like looking into the chest 
of another person. The right heart is the engine of the lungs, for it 
supplies those organs exclusively. The left heart throws the blood, as 
already remarked in the text, round the curve above g, in the direction 
indicated by the arrows, over the entire body. 

a, a, are the cavas, or great veins, returning blood from the head and 
arms, and lower extremities. The uppermost is the superior vena cava, 
and the one below the inferior vena cava. The arrows show the direc- 
tion of the returning currents of venous blood, to b, the auricle, which 
forces it into c, the ventricle, which again forces it up into a, d, the pul- 
monary artery, where it divides, to go to each lung ; e, is one of the. /bur 
pulmonary veins, which convey the blood, just forced into the lungs, into 
the auricle f, of the left heart. When that contracts, it drives its blood 
into g, the ventricle, which, in its turn, forces it onward again into the 
arch, or the aorta, the main pipe, where it glides along in the direction 
of the arrow, dividing, into smaller streams on its way, and finally goes 
down the descending aorta k, to supply the body below. 

There are many animals which have only the right heart, but none 
that possess the left one alone. The fish's heart, in the plan preceding 
this, is the single, equivalent to the right heart of man. 

That there might be no interference, no irregularity, 
but perfect order and harmony, only one acts at a time. 
The right heart rests while the left moves, and then, in 
perfect obedience to a law which cannot be explained, 
operates in its turn. 

In configuration, the heart has no such vulgar shape as 
we are told in some of the books, like the ace of hearts 
on a playing card. It is a short cone, lying obliquely 
across the breast, the point of which beats, when in an 
erect posture, between the sixth and seventh ribs of the 
left side. 

Within there are four apartments, so irregularly shap- 
ed that they cannot be likened to any thing. Each heart 
has its two cavities, communicating with each other by 
an orifice, about an inch in diameter, but a complete valve 
is suspended on the margin of the opening, like a gate, 
to close it, that all communication may be instantaneously 
interrupted, as we shall ascertain to be indispensably 
necessary, at each pulsation. Moreover, to prevent the 
heart from ever being over distended, from having its 
walls put too much upon a stretch, little cords of astonish- 
ing tenacity run from one side to the other, crossing and 
re-crossing each other in all directions, which also assist, 



Do both hearts act at the same How many cavities has the heart- 
moment ? calling the two a single organ ? 






ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 117 

by contracting, to squeeze it, as it were, together, in 
forcing out its contents. 

To secure it still farther, guarding against all contin- 
gencies, the heart is enveloped in a tough, slightly elastic 
case. Having this support, were the internal straps to be 
rent from their attachments, the swelling heart would be 
met from without by its covering, and prevented from 
being ruptured by the accumulation of the blood within. 

Lastly, that the freedom of motion might never be 
abridged, the heart is suspended at the top of the chest, 
by its own tubes, being at liberty to swing in the triangu- 
lar space given it between the lobes of the lungs, accord- 
ing to the various attitudes the body assumes. This is 
not all; the heart constitutes a hollow muscle, being as 
completely flesh as the muscles of the arm. Besides, it 
possesses all the essential characteristics of every muscle, 
the inherent property of contractility. 

Having explained the fact that there are two hearts, it 
is now necessary to show the necessity of this arrange- 
ment, which is no easy matter, inasmuch as we are to 
adapt our demonstration to thr capacity of the young. 

Throughout the system there are two sets of tubes for 
conveying blood ; one conducting it through the body, 
and the other returning it. To be serviceable to the sys- 
tem, which is the final cause of the elaborate machinery 
under consideration, two other important organs must 
necessarily claim attention, viz. the stomach and the 
lungs. 

In the former, the food is converted into a milky liquor, 
from whence it is actually conveyed into one of the cavi- 
ties of the heart ; but before it can be of any service, it 
must first be mixed with that already in the veins. A 
chemical change is effected in it by being exposed to the 
action of the atmospheric air, that makes it blood. 

When the first process is completed, the next object nature 
has in view is to distribute it, and the left heart is the 
apparatus by which it is effected. There is no communi- 
cation between the cavities of the two hearts, but we per- 
ceive that the blood, which is pouring into the right side, 

Why are not the walls oftener rup- Is the heart a muscle ? 

tured by the pressure of the blood Are there valves in the heart ? 

within? How does the heart carry on the 

How is the heart connected or circulation? 

attached in the chest ? 



118 ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 

must be thrown somewhere, and as it cannot go into the 
left, where, the query will arise, does it move? directly 
into the lungs. From thence it is collected, and by four 
branching tubes carried to the left heart. Thus the left 
heart forces it in all directions from the centre, and the 
right heart forces that which has been returned into the 
lungs. 

By an untiring labor of the two hearts, acting alter- 
nately, from birth till death, the blood, that important sub- 
stance, on which life depends, is kept always going and 
coming ; and whatever property or quantity is lost on the 
route, is supplied by the activity of the stomach, the great 
laboratory in which the material is manufactured of 
which it is originally made. 

Authors detail the particulars of what they call the 
two circulations, viz. the greater and lesser, by which is 
to be understood, that the right heart and lungs constitute 
this lesser, because the force of the engine is only exerted 
to throw its contents into the air cells of the lungs. On 
the other hand, the greater circulation means the left 
heart and all the arteries leading from it, quite to the 
extremities. 

As the power to be exerted by the left heart, in order 
to throw the blood the entire length of the body, is vastly 
superior to its fellow, which is only required to push its 
volume of blood about ten inches, so it is proportionably 
stronger in its substance, thicker in its walls, and more 
sensitive to the application of stimuli. In the act of 
dying, the left heart invariably clears all its cavities, and 
therefore is always empty on dissection, but the right 
heart remains full and burthened. 

Which heart or half belongs to the stood by the two circulations. 

body and which to the lungs ? Which of the two hearts possesses 

Explain what is commonly under- the greatest power ? 






ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 



119 




Explanation of Fig. 55. 

The double heart of man: q, descending- vena cava; o, ascending vena 
cava; n, right auric! e ; b, risfht ventricle; k, pulmonary artery; I, I, 
right and left branches of this artery, going to the lungs on either side 
ofthe chest; ???, m, veins of the lungs, which return what the artery sent 
in, to r, the left auricle ; a, the left ventricle ; c, e,f aorta, or great artery 
of the body, rising out of the left heart ; g, arteria innominata ; h, the 
subclavian artery, going to the left arm ; i the carotid artery, which goes 
up the side of the neck to the head. Note — the arrows show the course 
the blood moves in each of the vessels demonstrated with the heart ; ??, 
right auricle ; m, in, veins of the lungs ; s, left coronary artery. P, veins 
returning blood from the liver and bowels. 

There is no essential difference in the external appearance or internal 
organization of the heart of man and breathing animals generally; 
hence, in a cabinet, it would be exceedingly difficult for a practical anato- 
mist to designate the human from the heart of a brute, provided they 
were of equal dimensions. 

Nothing is easier than to fill a heart with wax, or even plaster paris, 
in order to exhibit, distinctly, all its vessels and its exact shape in a state 
of distension. The heart of any ofthe domestic animals, procured at the 
market, may be thus filled, and" kept for many years. 

Ultimum moriens, the last part to die, was an accurate 
remark of the old anatomists. In reptiles and fishes so 



Is there any difference between the 
organization of the heart of man 
and brutes ? 



How would you preserve this com- 
plex engine, in order to study its 
mechanism ? 



120 ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 

irritable is the heart- — and they possess only one half of 
ours, equivalent to the left one— that long after the body 
is dead, the heart, separated from all its connexions, will 
continue to pulsate upon the table for half an hour; 
when it has exhausted itself, if it be touched with the 
point of a pin, it will be roused into activity again, and 
beat and throb as though it were conscious of making a 
desperate struggle for existence. 

When the frog's heart has been a whole hour under 
inspection, it will continue to pulsate, even by blowing it. 
The mangled body, all this time disembowelled, shocking 
as it may seem, leaps about the house, without a heart, 
without blood, and with lacerated nerves and muscles, 
apparently j ust as well as before those cruelties were 
commenced. 

Each heart has two cavities, as repeatedly remarked ; 
but for the sake of conforming to the usual method of 
description we will say the heart has four cavities, two of 
which are the auricles, being uppermost, and two directly 
beneath them, the ventricles. 

The numerous threads, already spoken of, reaching 
from one side to the other, are called cor dee tendince, and 
those which are fleshy in the middle columnce and masses 
carncs. Their office is merely to prevent the auricle from 
being overcharged, acting precisely upon the principle 
of a tape the manufacturer tacks in to keep the lid of a 
trunk from falling open so far as to wrench off the hinges. 

From the lower part of the auricle the opening into 
the ventricle is a smooth, round hole, opened and closed 
by a valve that springs downward, but never, in any in- 
stance on record, has it been pushed up through. The 
valve is curiously supported by little tags, lines and 
weights to prevent its being pressed by any force that 
might have a tendency to press it the wrong way, and at 
the same time these accompaniments assist in moulding 
the edges precisely to the ragged surface of the border of 
the hole, so that it shall be completely tight. That it is 
impervious, may be inferred from the fact, that the heart 
has been repeatedly ruptured by its own exertion, on the 
blood filling its ventricles, or auricles, yet the strong 



What is meant by a ventricle? Is there a communication between 

Auricles — where are they in rela- these two apartments ? 
tion to the auricles ? 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 121 

walls, half an inch in thickness, gave way, while the tiny, 
transparent valve maintained its place. 

The strips which enter into its composition being fan • 
cifully imagined to be three, it takes the name of tricus- 
pid, because it has three points. On the top of the auri- 
cle two or three large veins present their mouths : one is 
the vena cava superior, the great trunk which brings all 
the blood from the head and arms into the reservoir ; and 
another, nearly opposite, is the vena cava inferior, in 
which all the blood is brought from the feet and body. 
There is a third, very much smaller, however, the coro- 
nary vein, returning the blood which has circulated ex- 
clusively in the substance of the heart. Over this last 
opening is a crescent-shaped valve, highly important, for 
were it not there, every time the auricle contracted it 
would force the blood wherever there was no resistance, 
which, therefore, instead of allowing the venous blood to 
return into the common fountain, would be continually 
driven onward, so that the heart itself would suffer from 
an obstructed circulation : this half-moon shaped valve, 
swinging downward, entirely opposes the ingress of blood 
from the auricle, yet freely allows that coming from the 
heart to make its exit by the valve. 

Can we contemplate any thing more purely mechanical 
than this contrivance ? Can any one in his senses argue 
himself into the absurd belief, that this peculiar arrange- 
ment, this striking adaptation of parts, all concurring to 
the utmost perfectability of the machine, splendid in its 
structure, happened all by chance ! 

The auricle being filled, the sense of fulness — a proper- 
ty entirely independent of the mind, wholly beyond the 
control of the laws of volition — prompts it to expel it. 
This it does by collapsing ; by simultaneously contracting 
all its parts upon the mass within, which is thereby driven, 
per saltitm, through the great canal, down into the ven- 
tricle, the second apartment. To admit it there, a pre- 
paration is necessary on the part of the ventricle, which 
consists in relaxing itself to enlarge its capacity for re- 
ceiving the portion that is on the way from the auricle. 
At the instant of being filled, the tricuspid valve, which 

What is the character of the of the heart ? 

valves? What is the order of action with 

What is the appropriate stimulus the valves ? 

11 



122 ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 

was before pendulous, flaps back, cuts off all further com- 
munication, and thus holds all that has been admitted, to 
be afterwards disposed of. 

Because the auricle is obliged to make an effort only 
strong enough to urge its contents by the valve, it is 
comparatively slightly made, and weaker than the ven- 
tricle. 

Having the ventricle filled, let us watch the process by 
which it clears itself. It has been premised, that its duty 
is to push the blood to the lungs, a distance of about ten 
inches, though if we suppose that the extreme ramifica- 
tions of the bronchial arteries are gorged by each throw 
of the ventricle, the power is equal to projecting the 
stream between seventy and eighty feet. This point is 
rather dubious ; anatomists have not satisfied thejnselves 
whether the ventricle actually presses the blood to the 
extreme twigs of the lungs, or only sends it beyond the 
valves in the mouth of the pulmonary artery, hardly a 
distance of seven inches. If it were not designed to exert 
a force more than ten times as great as the auricle, surely 
it would not have been made so very much stronger, and 
so amply provided with materials for that purpose. 

If the auricle can send a column of blood ten feet, the 
ventricle, by its additional physical advantages, could 
throw the same quantity fifty feet in precisely the same 
time. This looks a little like being able to reach the 
lungs, notwithstanding the reasonings of authors to the 
contrary. When the stimulus of distension creates the 
exciting sensation, the walls contract, as in the other case, 
and every drop of the blood goes through a very delicately 
smooth, round hole, the only outlet from the ventricle, 
besides the place of entrance, and this is the beginning 
of the 'pulmonary artery, the great blood-vessel of the 
lungs. Here we leave the description of the right heart, 
for the present, lest minuter details should distract rather 
than enlighten those who may, perhaps, endeavor to 
obtain their first accurate notions of this local piece of 
anatomy from our dissertation. 

Much as the heart of the body, that on the left side, re- 
sembles the one before us, there are peculiarities requuv 
ing a careful and patient investigation, if we are desirous 
of perfectly comprehending its structure and functions. 

What vessel does the blood enter from the right heart ? 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 123 

Were a well prepared specimen of the heart to be lying 
before the reader, he would regard the general appearance 
of strength in the left side, as though more depended upon 
it in the economy of life, than on its associate. Such 
is truly the fact, that the power manifested by it is im- 
mensely superior. 

United, as just seen, are the left auricle and ventricle, 
with a similar valvular communication between them. 
The left auricle is considerably larger than the right, but 
bears more resemblance to a square box, in a state of dis- 
tension, than a sac. The entire office of this is to expel 
the blood forcibly into its neighboring ventricle. Uniting 
by degrees, all the veins gradually terminate in four con- 
siderable trunks, in the two sides of the auricle, nearly 
opposite to each other. Two of them bring the blood 
from the right, and the others from the left lobes of the 
lungs. 

When the ventricle is full, let it be recollected that it 
must send its blood in two directions, viz., towards the 
head, as well as the feet ; and at the same time, supply 
all the intermediate viscera, muscles, nerves, and even 
the very bones themselves, however remote from the 
centre of the circulation. By its contraction a valve, 
called the mitral, shuts back to prevent a regurgitation ; 
hence the blood can only escape through the canal pro- 
vided for it. This is a long, strong tube, nearly an inch 
in diameter-, in man, known as the aorta. Directly in 
the calibre of the aorta are three valves, so adjusted to 
the condition and shape of the artery, that the three, in 
being spread horizontally, (the posture has no influence 
on the action,) effectually close the channel, so that no- 
thing which may have passed the portals can possibly 
be returned. Thus the functions of the two hearts are 
analogous ; the principle of propulsion is the same, and 
indeed, when the office and organization of one is under- 
stood, it illustrates sufficiently well the other. 

The line of union between the two is termed the sep- 
tum cordis. All the fibres of the two ventricles have a 
winding direction, which give the heart a twisting or 
vermicular kind of motion in its pulsations. The alter- 
nately swelling and collapsing, as when full, or empty, 

Why were the two hearts united— from the connexion ? 
are there any advantages derived 



124 ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK, 

are the disastole and systole, terms used to express the 
pulsations. 

Although the heart is the fountain of life, dispensing 
the blood either directly or indirectly to the smallest 
twig, wherever located, in the body, it requires a circula- 
tion of the same vitalizing fluid to sustain its own ex- 
istence. 

For this purpose there are vessels creeping out at the 
sides of the aorta, at right angles with the trunk, just 
above the semi-lunar valves, which wend their way 
directly to the dividing horizontal line, between the 
auricles and ventricles, where, carefully imbedded in a 
triangular depression, out of the way, the coronary arte- 
ries are continually sending off branches that dip down 
into the substance of the heart, supplying it abundantly 
with arterial blood. When it has completed its route, 
and is in readiness to go on again, to get within the 
cavities of the heart, from the extremities of the coronary 
arteries veins commence, called coronary, which keep 
gradually uniting, and ultimately coalesce in one single 
tube, the coronary vein, of the diameter of a writing pen, 
whose mouth was found, on examination of the right 
auricle, behind a beautiful little coronary valve. In this 
way the substance of the heart is supplied with nutri- 
ment, to sustain it in a course of activity that never tires 8 
and which never ceases till death, 

NERVES OF THE HEART. 

These are few, arising from the sympathetic and eighth 
pair of nerves. The sympathetic is a kind of line of 
union receiving a deputation from all the principal nerves 
throughout the frame, by which a connexion is maintain- 
ed with all the different parts of the complicated whole. 
The eighth pair of nerves arise in the brain, but traverse 
down the side of the neck into the chest, following the 
course of the windpipe and aesophagus, quite to the 
stomach. From these, there being a pair, one on either 
side, filaments shoot off to the heart. The minutise of the 
course is not essential. In this way the heart holds a 
line of communication with the stomach : by the other set 

Where is the vessel called coronary From what source are they de- 
vein ? rived ? 
Has the heart any nerves ? 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 125 

of nervous cords, it possesses a general relationship to all 
the portions of the body. 

Placing the heart entirely beyond the reach of the 
inconstant, unstable will, was a happy circumstance in 
the economy of our being. No one can put a stop to 
the pulsations of his heart, in a fit of despair or rage, as 
thousands would, were it possible. It still works on, by 
night as well as day, though the intellect sleeps, and 
thus we are safely protected. If the pulsations and the 
maintenance of life, through the heart's agency, depended 
on our vigilance, how soon we should forget the charge, 
and suffer the chronometer of life to run down the first 
time it was left in our care. 

HEART-CASE, OR PERICARDIUM. 

An allusion, merely, has been made, to the heart-case, 
or pericardium, the office and importance of which is 
very likely to be overlooked. It is the membrane which 
farmers sometimes make money purses of, on account of 
its softness, toughness and capacity. In the chest, lying 
between the breast bone in front and the spinal column 
behind, it is like a bag, kept on the stretch by a hoop : 
on either side are the lungs, in their own cavities. A 
duplication of its inner coat invests the substance of the 
heart, closely, and on the surface, spread over the heart, 
as well as from the inside of the pericardium, a halitus is 
exhaled, that lubricates the cavity, admitting the gentlest 
possible motions, as it swings in the apartment. Though 
the heart is moving about, its apex being sometimes at 
one point, and sometimes at another, according to our 
position, the pericardium never moves from its place, 
being always kept upon the stretch. 

Is the heart at all influenced by Describe the use of the pericardi- 
the will ? um. 



126 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 

Fig. 56. 




Explanation of Fig. 56. 

a, the heart, in its natural position, the sternum being taken away, and 
the pericardium laid open in front, to give a full and perfect view of the 
organ ; c, is the arch of the aorta, or primitive artery of the body, from 
which all others arise ; e, is the diaphragmatic nerve, having its origin 
high up, on the side of the neck, and travelling down into the chest, on 
the outside of the pericardium, or heart-case, to reach the diaphragm, 
the partition that divides the chest from the abdomen. If this nerve is 
divided, all motion in the diaphragm will cease. It should be recollected 
that it is a muscle of respiration, rising and falling with the inflation and 
collapse of the lungs. The base, or rather under side of the heart, as it 
is suspended from above, rests on the diaphragm at the lower 6 ; b, b, i, 
the heart-case ; d, the descending cava, or great vein that returns the 
blood from the head and arms, into the right auricle of the heart. 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 



127 



ARTERIES. 



To describe the arteries in a manner intelligible to 
persons who have never examined an anatomical prepara- 
tion, in which these vessels are distended with wax, is 
certainly a difficult undertaking. 



Fig. 57. 




Explanation of Fig. 57. 

By referring back to the plan of the perfect double heart, i, shows the 
origin of the carotid artery, a branch from the arch of the aorta. In this 
very accurate plan of the superficial arteries of the head, a is the conti- 
nued trunk of the carotid artery : it is this vessel which is usually divided 
by suicides ; it is this vessel also, with its mate on the other side of the 



What are arteries ? 



128 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 



neck, which, when compressed, causes apoplexy and death. jf, the 
occipital artery, going to the muscles on the back of the head ; 6, is the 
larynx, or vocal box ; c, indicates the place where the carotid divides into 
the n, the external carotid, branching onward ; b, also is the superior 
thyroid artery ; p, the thyroid gland, and inferior thyroid artery ; k, the 
temporal artery, felt beating in the temple, and sometimes selected to 
bleed from in desperate cases ; o, the left subclavian artery ; Z, the mas- 
seter muscle ; h, depressor anguli oris, having running under it the exter- 
nal maxillary artery ; i, the zygomaticus major, directing the eye also to 
the coronary arteries of the lips ; q, the nasal artery ; r, the termination 
of the temporal artery, in minute twigs on the top of the head. 

After all that is said about the catalogue of arteries laid 
down in the human body, there is really but one artery, 
all others being branches from it. But to answer the 
purposes of the surgeon, it is absolutely necessary to treat 
of each twig distinctly, in order that its relation to other 
parts may be impressed on the mind of an operator. 

Fig. 58. * 




Explanation of Fig. 58. 

This diagram may be regarded as perfectly true to nature. The design 
is to show how the blood is conveyed to deep-seated muscles of the face, 
and to the membranes covering the brain, within the skull : all the ves- 
sels now under the eye are branches, originating from the trunk of the 
external carotid artery, shown in the preceding plan, a, is the middle or 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 



129 



great meningeal artery of the dura mater. By the side of the ear, lies 
the trunk of the internal maxillary artery, supplying a vast quantity of 
blood to the muscles of the face ; part of the jaw and the process of the 
temporal bone is removed, to explain the manner of its course under and 
about them. 6, a branch of the inferior maxillary arteiy, seen in the 
other plan : c, posterior temporal branch ; d, pterygoid arteries, supplying 
those muscles which move the jaw in chewing ; i, buccal artery, going to 
the buccinator, or trumpeter's muscle; f, anterior deep temporal branch ; 
e, infra orbitar artery. 

The bone in this figure is supposed to have been taken away, in order 
to exhibit the arteries a which branch, like the limbs of a tree, over the 
surface of the dura mater. 

This one artery, the primitive trunk, is the aorta, rear- 
ing- itself out of the left ventricle of the heart: collectively, 
the parent tube, with its subdivisions into thousands of 
tortuous pipes, is denominated the aortic system; and 
when arteries and veins are spoken of together, as a 
whole, the term sanguiferous system is used. 

Fig. 69. 




Explanation of Fig. 59. 

This figure has been introduced to show the manner of supplying the 
brain with arterial blood by the vertebral arteries. It will doubtless be 



What is the name of the primitive What is understood by the aortic 
artery of the body ? system ? 



130 ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 

recollected by the critical student, that in the lateral arms of the vertebrae 
of the neckj there were round holes, from one bone to the other. Through 
those holes an artery creeps securely into the skull, unexposed to the 
thousand accidents to which the carotid arteries are liable. If, for ex- 
ample, an operation requires that the carotids should be tied, so that no 
blood can pass in them, a supply for the brain is secured by these verte- 
brals. When they have arrived within the skull, at the under side of the 
brain, the two marked 6, 6, unite into one, which is c, and then branches 
off among the convolutions of the brain, indicated by the various letters ; 
g, is the little brain or cerebellum ; f, the middle lobe of the brain, or 
cerebrum ; e, the anterior lobe of the cerebrum ; and a, the optic nerves, 
or nerves of vision. This is no fanciful distribution of the arteries of this 
organ, but a perfectly true representation. 

As the great cylinder rises above the top of the heart, 
thick, white and shining, it bulges out at the sides, in 
three directions, at the place where the three semi-lunar 
valves are fixed. The enlargement is known as the sinus 
of Valsalvi, from its supposed discoverer. Gradually it 
becomes smaller, preserving, however, a diameter equal to 
three fourths of an inch, till it gets above the heart, where 
it is gracefully curved over and upon the spine, down 
which it runs the entire circuit of the chest and abdomen. 
On the last joint, though not constantly, of the back, it 
divides into two trunks, to be sent to the inferior extremi- 
ties. On the highest point of the arch, branches shoot 
off, to carry blood to the head and arms. Those going up 
the side of the neck are the carotids, the arteries which 
self-murderers divide in cutting their throats. It is by 
compressing these, as in hanging, that death is produced. 
When they arrive at the angle of the under jaw, they 
divide into external and internal carotids: the deep 
seated or inner ones go through an orifice in the bottom 
of the skull, to supply the brain ; while the external 
creep up by the side of the ear, face, &c, supplying all 
the muscles and bones in the vicinity. 

At the last joint of the spine, the lumbar region, we 
left the descending artery, divided into two branches. In 
ascending from the heart, the large artery is called the 
ascending aorta, and having made the curve, the de- 
scending tube is the descending aorta. 

These two trunks, now lying just within the brim of 
the pelvis, divide again, sending a supply of blood to the 
muscles and apparatus within the pelvis. The first trunks 
are the external iliacs, and the second set are internal 
iliacs. Further down, in the thigh, in each limb, the 
arteries appear under the name of femoral arteries : in 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 



131 



the ham, behind the knee joint, the poplitael ; still fur- 
ther, by the side of the shin bone, the tibial ; in the foot, 



Fig. 60. 




Explanation of Fig-. 60. 

A very lar^e quantity of blood, as we have seen, is sent to the brain, 
by foar arteries, viz. the two carotids and two vertebrals. By this plan, 
it will be plainly understood how the blood gets back again to the heart. 
The superior longitudinal sinus, fisf. 1, is nothing more than a vein, of 
a triangular shape, beginning within the skull, opposite the root of the 
nose, and going backward, between the bone and outer membrane of the 
brain, over the top of the head, increasing in size as it goes, till it reaches 
the level of the posterior lobe, where it divides into two canals, marked 
3, 3. Many twigs of veins, pointed out by the other figures, bring the 
blood from other places in the head, but ultimately they all join one or 
the other branches of the main trunks of the sinus : 3, 3, are called lateral 
sinuses, because they are on the sides, as it were, of the head. These 
two trunks pass through a fissure, in the under side of the skull, between 
the temporals and occfpital bone, and appearing by the side of the neck, 
are there called the jugular veins. The external jugulars return the 
blood from the face, &c, and finally join the internal jugulars, and there, 
by entering the chest, become enlarged by the union of the veins of the 
arms, when the whole are concentrated in one tube ; that last one is the 
descending vena cava, emptying all the blood from the head, and brain, 
and arms, into the auricle of the right heart. The jugular veins, there- 
fore, are the great veins of the brain, and commence behind the forehead 
bone, just between the eyes, within the skull. 

the plantar ; and so on, till the divisions become too mi- 
nute to be discernible to the naked eye. 

Between the arch and the pelvis, various little twigs 
are thrown off laterally to nourish the lungs, diaphragm, 



132 ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 

liver, stomach, spleen, and other abdominal viscera, each 
bearing a name indicating its destination, or office, or 
supposed resemblance to familiar objects. Here, then, 
we have exhibited a scheme of the arterial system, per- 
haps quite as well as to have accompanied the text with 
many more drawings. 

The arteries must be nourished themselves, by a free 
circulation of blood in their coats, as much as the heart ; 
otherwise, were they independent of the rest of the living 
body, they would be extraneous, and could not contribute 
to its wants. On the sides of all the arteries, millions of 
vessels, infinitely fine, more nearly like the down on a 
peach than arteries, conduct a circulation. This tissue or 
net-work of miniature arteries is the vasa vasoru?n. 
Finally, the arteries are made up of several coats,, as 
though one tube were thrust into another, which are 
muscular and membraneous, according to their impor- 
tance. 

As they recede from the heart; the tendency is to keep 
subdividing, to supply every possible part ; hence, ulti- 
mately, they become too small to be seen. Between these 
points and the commencement of the veins is an inter- 
mediate set of real or imaginary vessels, the capillaries, 
through which the blood must pass to reach the veins. 
Such is the monstrous size of the aorta in a whale, that 
the whizzing velocity of the blood, at each systole, is 
audible to the harpooners : with the stethoscope, quite a 
modern invention, the rush of blood may be heard in our 
own chests. 

That the arteries possess the property of contracting 
upon the blood cannot be denied. The heart, were it 
intended to force the column, independently of any assis- 
tance from the arteries, through their whole extent, we 
should suppose, was not adequate to the undertaking, 
because the proportions are unequal, in comparing the 
engine with the distance to which it is required to send 
the blood. The pulsations of the arteries indicate that 
they continue and propagate the action which was com- 
menced by the heart. 

Do the arteries themselves require where located ? 

a circulation of blood within their Do the arteries possess a contractile 

tissues ? property ? 
What are capillary vessels, and 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 



133 



Fig. 61. 




Explanation pf Fig . 61. 

It is utterly impossible, as 
well as unprofitable, in an ele- 
mentary work of this kind, 
intended for youth, to picture 
every vessel ; but we were 
desirous of displaying the ar- 
teries of the arm and palm of 
the hand, on account of the 
beauty and great importance 
of the structure. What is 
seen in this drawing exists in 
every living arm. Over the 
bend of the elbow, a mere 
web lies between the great 
artery and vein. The vein is 
taken away, but it will show 
how dangerous it is to bleed 
the vein at this point, on ac- 
count of the nearness of the 
artery, which is liable to be 
wounded by the point of the 
lancet. A knowledge of this 
fact should deter every one 
from employing surgeons in 
whom they Wve not the most 
implicit confidence, that they 
understand anatomy, a, 6, c, 
d-> e , f> £"j ^: *i mark the 
branches of the brachial artery 
a, as they are, in relation to 
the muscles ; i is the fascia or 
the membrane, between the 
artery and vein, and which is 
a tendinous strip sent off from 
the biceps flexor cubiti, or 
bending muscle of the fore- 
arm, as though it was express- 
Iv designed to confine the 
throbbing artery in its place, 
and protect it from the injuries 
to which it seems liable by 
carrying burdens in the arms. 
This strip of tendon is like the 
arch of a bridge, for if the 
arm is bent it is still tense, 
and therefore always a de- 
fence. 

This brachial artery, near 
the elbow, divides into branch- 
es ; one of them sinks into the 
muscles, to supply them, by 
the side of the ulna, on a line 
with the little finger', and hence 
called the 'dinar artery. The 



Point out the main artery of the 
arm. 

12 



How is the great vessel confined 
within the hollow of the elbow ? 



134 ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 

main trunk of the brachial, however, travels downward, quite superficial- 
ly, near the edge of the radius, and therefore has the name of radial 
artery. In the wrist, being just under the skin, it is pressed against the 
bone, where its pulsations are felt : feeling the pulse, in the language of 
physicians, simply means the sensation conveyed by the throbbings of 
this artery, when thus compressed. Further on in the palm of the hand, 
it forms half a circle, termed the palmar arch, and from its outward 
curve digital branches convey the blood to the fingers and thumb. 

Were it not so, of what use are the valves at the mouth 
of the aorta and in the pulmonary artery ? If the volume 
to which an onward impetus had been given, could pur- 
sue the tortuous windings quite to the capillaries, of what 
need were the valves? The truth appears to be this, viz., 
the ventricle only throws the blood beyond the valves, 
which are thrust across the canal to prevent a regurgita- 
tion, and then the artery compresses it in turn. Onward 
it moves, to some other place, where, before the velocity 
that has been given it is lost, a second, third and fourth 
pulsation, as the case may be, completes the circle of ac- 
tion. Do we not actually feel that the artery pulsates in 
the wrist ; and do we not also recollect, that in the fish, 
an artery, the aorta, assumes the office of a heart ; in the 
vermin, too, did we not show that the aorta and accompa- 
nying arteries carried on the perfect circulation, without 
any heart at all ? 

The arteries are not passive tubes, imbedded in the 
concealed interstices of the muscles to conduct a fluid in 
which they have no part nor interest. They are not qui- 
escent, like the logs of an aqueduct ; they are portions of 
a living whole. They feel the vigor or the decay of 
other parts ; they become diseased by over excitement ; 
sicken, refuse to pursue their accustomed service ; and 
when the crazy, shattered frame of the old man begins to 
tottle, the arteries, too, begin to flag, and finally cease to 
act at all. In old age they ossify, becoming perfectly bony 
tubes, for many inches together : by over action, they are 
enlarged into irregular sacks, or aneurisms ; and in ad- 
vanced cases, they burst, and the heart's blood is wasted 
so quickly, that life may be said to have exploded. 

The tendency of age is to relax the muscular fibre ; and 
in this general debility the arterial coats suffer, their 
diameters enlarge, and their power is diminished as their 

How far does the heart exert a become, in some instances, bony 

projectile force on the blood ? tubes? 

At what period of life do the arteries 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 



135 



transverse diameter increases. The energy of the pulse 
is lost ; the arteries, however, make an effort to sustain 
their accustomed vigor, by assuming a more tortuous 
course, showing that the short curves which are made 
under these circumstances are favorable to the accumu- 
lation of physical power. 



VEINS. 



It is much easier to account for the propulsion of the 
blood from the heart, through the arteries, than to explain 

Fig. 62. 



Explanation of Fig. 62. 

_^ The anatomy of the veins being much 
less intricate "than the arteries to under- 

i stand, it has not been thought necessary to 

_/• present more than one plan of some of the 
most superficial vessels of this order. 

■g On the calf of the leg there are nume- 
rous veins, just under the skin, uniting into 
fewer and fewer branches, as they rise upon 

-n the limb, till they finally unite in two prin- 
cipal trunks, one deep sealed, and the other 
superficial, which pass into the pelvis, at 
the groin, and thus convey the blood to the 
ascending vena cava, the great vein that 
carries all the blood to the heart, which 
has been collected below it. By turning 
to the drawing of the double heart, fig. 2, 
that great vein will be seen. 
d, The gastrocnemius. 

f, The branch arising from the popli- 
teal. 

g, The nervus communicans, arising 
from the fibular nerve. 

h, The popliteal nerve. 

i, The fibular nerve. 

A', The popliteal vein. 

/, The vena saphsena minor. 

m, The popliteal artery. 

n, ?i, The arteries distributed upon the 
calf of the leg. 

7?. p, The muscles on the back of the 
thigh. 

d< The Gastrocnemius. 




136 ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 

the process of its return through the veins. Their origin 
is in the capillaries, quite at the extreme terminations of 
the arteries, growing larger as they advance towards the 
centre of the body. They are seen through the skin at 
the ends of the fingers, on the arms, and indeed every- 
where, creeping upward, becoming increased in size at 
every step, till they eventually are reduced in number to 
two principal trunks, the superior and inferior cavas, at 
the right auricle. Their coats, which are the same as 
the arteries, are thinner and weaker, more dilatable, and 
consequently much oftener diseased and liable to acci- 
dents. Through their whole track, with a few excep- 
tions, there is a line of valves, the office of which is to 
hold the column from falling back, that has once passed 
above the lock. So frequent are these valves, that they 
may be detected every inch, in the great veins of the 
arms. By compressing the vessel above one of them, the 
blood at once accumulates in* the form of a knot, showing 
accurately the exact place of its locality. The principle 
of fixing a ligature round a limb, as a preparatory step to 
bleeding, with a lancet, is to stop the blood in its course, 
there being no possibility of its going backward, as it is 
held by the valve ; therefore, as the canal is closed by 
compression above, the escape is at the incision. 

We will not pretend to inform our readers how the 
blood travels up the veins, lying, as they do, perfectly 
quiescent. It seems as though there must be a propulsive 
force exerted somewhere in the vicinity of the capillaries, 
to thrust the blood along, yet dissection gives us no clue 
to the mystery. 

The veins, acting as absorbents, accompany the arteries 
wherever they go, 

CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD. 

Were it not necessary in the plan of animal life to pre- 
sent every particle of blood, at certain intervals, to the 

Can the return of the blood in the How can the place of a valve be 

veins be readily accounted for ? ascertained ? 

Where do they originate ? What other offices do the veins sus- 

Are they superficial? tain, besides returning the blood 

Name the primary veins. to the heart ? 

What is their structure ? What is meant by the circulation 

Have they valves 1 of the blood ? 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 137 

influence of atmospheric air, there would have been no 
need of a heart. It might have remained undisturbed, 
fulfilling the intentions of its design. But it is secreted 
into the vessels to increase the growth, to repair the 
waste, and to sustain the whole by its vivifying presence. 
Every bone, muscle, tendon, nerve, membrane and fluid, 
is made out of the blood. As the parts to be made cannot 
fabricate themselves, and afterwards take their appointed 
stations, the blood goes to the spot where this is to be 
effected, leaving material for a bone in one place, glue to 
hold particles together in another, and so on, in its active 
round. But, on the other hand, these particles cannot 
fashion themselves : the point of an artery, therefore, at 
which they are given off, moulds and finishes the work. 

We here discover that the arteries possess a wonderful 
property, which was not spoken of in the preceding para- 
graphs. Industrious and unerring in all the first years 
of life, invariably conveying just the sort of material that 
may be wanted to mend a broken bone, to heal a cut 
finger, or to lubricate a joint: in forty years they fail to 
supply the eyes with sufficient quantities of humor to 
distend the ball ; so we wear spectacles : they are forgetful 
of the order by which their early labors were regulated ; 
lime is carried to the heart, where the valves become 
bony; stones form in the bladder; the teeth are not 
supplied with earthy matter in season to prevent their 
decay, and the hair becomes dry and falls off. 

Such cursory remarks as these exhibit a bird's-eye 
view of the importance and multifarious functions of the 
arteries, and demonstrate the high value of the blood, from 
which so much and such inimitable machinery is formed. 

As we now comprehend the use of the circulation, we 
will next endeavor to solve another apparently difficult 
problem, why it is necessary to throw the blood into the 
air cells of the lungs. 

The sign of vitality of the blood is its scarlet color, 
which it only exhibits in the heart and arteries. When 
it goes from the heart, it is charged with the presence, or 
admixture, of every material which can possibly be re- 
quired ; but on its way to the capillaries, all these several 

Why is it necessary that this fluid Does the blood pass into the lungs ? 

should circulate ? How is the arterial blood disUV 

How happens it that the valves be- guished from venous ? 

come ossified ? 

12* 



138 



ANATOMTCAL CLASS BOOK. 



materials, supposed to be in solution, are dropped on the 
way, so that when the refuse, that is, the fluid, which was 




Explanation of Fig. 63. 

If the student is desirous of thoroughly and clearly understanding the 
circulation of the blood, as it moves in his own body, let him now re- 
capitulate the subject, by following the venous or black blood from the 
two great supplying veins, till it arrives in the main distributing artery, 
purified, re-vitalized, and in a condition to sustain animal life. 

q, the descending vena cava, returning black blood from the head and 
upper extremities. 

o, the ascending vena cava, returning the same kind of blood from the 
lower parts of the body. 

n, the right auricle of the heart, where both veins meet. 

p, and x, veins from the liver, spleen and bowels, uniting with the 
inferior cava. 

The auricle, being filled, contracts and forces the blood into b, the ven- 
tricle : next the ventricle contracts and sends it into k, the pulmonary 
artery, which branches into I, I, to supply the lungs in both sides of the 
chest. From the lungs, where a scarlet color has been given it, four veins 
of the lungs gather it together, and deposit it in the left auricle, r ; that 
contracts, and the blood is driven into the left ventricle, a ; lastly, the 
ventricle contracts and throws it into c, the aorta, which conducts it over 
and through every bone, muscle and organ. 

Under a solar microscope, the circulation of the blood in the thin web 
of a frog's foot, and several other reptiles, may be distinctly observed ; 
and in insects, while they remain worms, the pulsations of the artery, 
which acts instead of a heart, are readily perceived. In the oyster, the 
heart pulsates about thirty-seven times in a minute. 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 139 

Before birth, the blood, instead of going from the auricle of the right 
heart down into the ventricle, to be thrown into the lungs, passes directly 
through a valve in the partition wall between the two auricles, and thus 
gets into the left side or left heart. The reason why the blood is not 
sent to the lungs, is because they have not yet assumed the function of 
breathing. At birth, when the first breath of air is inhaled that ever 
enters the lungs, the valve closes up the opening forever, and the blood 
then takes a circuitous route through the lungs, for the reason which has 
been already so familiarly explained. 

merely the medium of conveyance, enters the extreme 
beginnings of the veins, its color is almost black. 

Having, therefore, imparted all its needful qualities, it 
is totally unfit to be sent round a second time, till it is re- 
charged. To obtain this quality, now lost, the right heart 
sends it into the lungs. Surrounding each distended air 
cell is a thin sheet of black venous blood, which, by the 
mysterious influence of the contained air, changes the 
color, instantly, to its original scarlet. The orgasm, the 
suddenness of the change, cannot be conceived ; yet the 
whole mass is re-vitalized, and is now carried into the 
left heart, to be sent over the old ground. 

Anatomists, treating of this fluid, speak of its being 
composed of serum, the watery, yellowish fluid; fibrin, 
the crassamentum, or cake ; and the coloring matter. 
Were we not restricted in this work to certain limits, it 
would certainly be an entertaining theme to detail the ex- 
travagant whims which the old authors entertained upon 
the subject of the red globules of the blood. It actually 
seems, to a calm spectator, who surveys the past and 
compares it with the present, as though the physiologists 
of the two last centuries bowed down to make themselves 
positively ridiculous, by the sweat of the brow. When, 
by some fortuitous circumstance, it was ascertained that 
the florid hue of the blood depended on the actual pres- 
sure of floating globules, of different sizes, yet so minutely 
small as to appear like the coloring of an infusion, they 
set to work in earnest to investigate their use and struc- 
ture. About the same time, unluckily, a philosopher 
invented the compound microscope, which enabled every 
body to peep into microcosms, where they beheld sights, 
quite imaginary in most cases, more astonishing than 
were ever before revealed to human eyes. 

Whether they saw distinctly or not, it is now of little 
consequence ; but, at all events, they asserted the want of 

Of what is blood composed ? Has it a coloring matter ? 



140 ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 

uniformity in the size of the globules, though each one 
was a hexagon, built up regularly and mathematically, as 
an architect could construct a country seat, of six smaller 
hexagons! However small, — and some were supposed to 
be immensely beyond the magnifying reach of their 
glasses, — they were all framed in the same workmanlike 
manner. 

All this fine discovery being settled and indisputably 
admitted, — for it would have been outrageously impolite 
for those who had no microscopes to call the marvellous 
discovery in question, — their wits were in labor to devise 
a rank for them in the circulation. This, too, was ac- 
complished ; but to find out the diseases that originated 
in consequence of the mistakes or refractory conduct of 
the compound balloons, was a poser. There is nothing, 
by the way, like perseverance. A man who is lost in a 
fog has but one course to pursue, and that is to take care 
of himself: so it was with our discoverers ; they had 
their mathematical bladders on hand, which must be 
disposed of; and here they are, in all their beauty of ar? 
rangement, from the plastic hands of their discoverers. 

Diseases were the effects arising from error loci — -that 
is, some of the large globules, fitted to the calibre of a 
particular artery, got wedged, by some sad mishap, at the 
mouth of a smaller vessel, or, becoming angry, refused to 
operate in the harness, so puffed up, clogged the passage, 
and this produced inflammation, out of the modifications 
of which fevers, dropsies, and all the other ills that flesh 
is heir to, had a bona fide origin ! 

Enough has been written to stimulate our readers to 
the perusal of the old records of physiological folly, in the 
original tongue, if they wish for an uninterrupted history 
of that singular discovery. To those who are more in- 
terested in the anatomical facts we have been relating, 
touching the heart and the arteries, it is needless to re- 
commend them to the writings of those who are teachers 
by profession. Perhaps we may have committed our- 
selves in the ardor of the moment, by advancing ideas 
quite as absurd as those which we have been condemn- 
ing ; but in the demonstration of parts we are conscious 
of being right, having given the anatomy of the circula- 

What was the opinion of the an- gy of the blood ? 
cients in relation to the physiolo- 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 



141 



tioix as we have found it by years of toil ; and as it re- 
gards theories, things made at little expense, like castles 
in the air, we are not tenacious about the respect that 
may be paid to them. 



THE NERVES, 



OR NEUROLOGY. 

Neurology teaches us the anatomy and physiology of 
the nerves. 

The brain is the radiating point whence the nerves, to 
a considerable extent, have their origin. The spinal mar- 
row, from which an immense number of nerves branch 
out, is considered in reality by some a prolongation of 
the brain itself. Phrenologists, on the other hand, sup- 
pose the brain arises from the spinal marrow, because 
the brain is sometimes wanting, but the nerves are al- 
ways present. 

Fig. 64. 




Explanation of Fig. 64. 

This is an exhibition of a vertical section of the bones of the head, face 
and brain, showing precisely the appearance, were the head divided in 



What does neurology teach 7 
What organ is considered the centre 



of the nervous system ? 



142 ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 

the middle, from the top down to the neck. No letters of reference have 
been introduced, because the plate will be doubly valuable, when the 
general relation of the different portions have been learned from the text 
and the other diagrams. The reader will then trace with his eye the 
outline of the little brain, the cerebrum, or large brain, the seat of 
thought ; the ventricles and other interesting points, which, though intri- 
cate, are nevertheless worth the trouble of understanding. The mechan- 
ical arrangement is only contemplated in these illustrations : the functions 
of the brain, in a treatise purely elementary, would be wholly useless. 

In the first place, the contents of the head are divided 
into the cerebrum and cerebellum, or, in other words, the 
great and small brains. Above the level of the ears, all 
the upper portion of the skull is occupied by the cere- 
brum, which is the immediate seat of intellect. Below 
that level, in the lower and back part of the head, is the 
cerebellum, or little brain. They are separated from each 
other by a membrane, tensely stretched. Otherwise, the 
weight of the upper mass would oppress the functions of 
the lower one. By a vertical line, the brain is divided 
into hemispheres, as right and left ; but when it is dis- 
lodged from the head, and inverted, the under side pre- 
sents three prominent risings, which are denominated 
lobes. Those portions of the brain directly behind each 
eye are the anterior lobes; those at the back side of 
the head, the posterior ; and the third, between them 
both, are the middle lobes. 

COATS OF THE BRAIN AND NERVES. 

In this plain exposition of the anatomy of the nervous 
system, it would be an endless labor to attempt a minute 
detail of the three different coverings which surround the 
intellectual apparatus, independently of the bony box, the 
strong wall that envelops the whole. 

firm coat, or — Dura mater. 

When the skull is opened, a dense, shining membrane 
is presented, that keeps the brain together, when the 
bones are taken entirely away. Completely embracing 
the entire organ, it becomes thicker round the medulla 
oblonga, to defend this narrowing of the brain over the 



How is the brain anatomically di- Where does the cerebellum lie? 

vided? How many investing membranes 

What part of the brain is called the has the brain ? 

cerebrum ? Describe the dura mater. 






ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 143 

bones of the neck, then continues its course through the 
whole length of the back bone, embracing the marrow. 
Wherever a branch or side nerve is given off, a portion of 
the dura mater follows it, precisely as the bark of the 
trunk covers the branching limbs. In the still smaller 
divisions of the nerve, a continuous tube of the dura 
mater is found, till both are finally lost on the exterior 
surface. This membrane defends the pulp of the nervous 
matter within its embrace, wherever the nerves may 
traverse. 

transparent coat, or — Tunica arachnoides. 

Perhaps there is not a more delicate, transparent mem- 
brane in the whole body than this, so much resembling a 
spider's web, that from this circumstance it has its name. 
This lies over the convolutions of the brain, directly 
under the dura mater, and does not dip down between the 
prominences. Beside surrounding the brain, like the 
other, it has precisely the same infinite distribution, 
making the second tube for defending the nerve. 

soft coat, or — Pia mater. 

Blood must be everywhere freely circulated ; but in 
the brain it is necessarily thrown into that portion which 
is the seat of thought in very minute, hair-like currents, 
otherwise the force of the heart, which acts upon the 
principle of a forcing- pump or syringe, would tear it to 
pieces. This pia mater, therefore, is an immense, broad, 
thin net of blood-vessels, following the fissures and wind- 
ing into the very centre of the brain, and also pursues the 
nerves wherever they may go, always in attendance to 
furnish the vital fluid, on which health, sensibility, and, 
indeed, all the vital functions are forever depending. 

STRUCTURE OF THE BRAIN. 

The centre of the nervous system is the brain, within 
the bones of the head, with the exception of that class of 
animals which, as it were, are the uniting links between 
the vegetable and animal kingdom ; the worms are with- 
out it : fishes too, and amphibious reptiles have scarcely 

What names have, and where are The use of the pia maler ? 
the other tunics ? 



144 ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 

a development of the nervous mass, entitling it to the 
appellation of brain. We suppose, however, that we are 
contemplating the human brain, a singular, but splendidly 
constructed piece of mechanism, made up of an infinite 
congeries of delicate cords, and equally attenuated blood- 
vessels. 

It was once thought that we had but one brain, but 
modern discovery assures us that we possess four, and 
that two of them mutually cooperate, in function, with 
the others. 

There is no particular point where the brain can be 
said to begin, nor a point, in fact, where it terminates. 
Let the reader suppose that on the first joint of the neck, 
just under the head, two large cords are lying, side by 
side : entering the great natural opening of the skull, 
they are subdivided into millions of threads, portions of 
which assume different forms, to which anatomists give 
specific names, as cruri, pons, &c. But as the threads 
are merely subdivisions of the one cord, the mystery is, 
at first view, how comes such an increased quantity? 
Nothing is more simple than an explanation. Admitting 
the fibres to be indefinitely long, — the folding and refold- 
ing of one upon another, in conjunction with an artery 
and vein, — there is no difficulty in giving an answer. 
For the evidence of a fibrous structure, this infinite vo- 
lume of threads, we refer to the positive demonstration of 
the brain by the late Dr. Spurzheim. 

Most of the organs are double, and it was highly neces- 
sary that the brain should be so also. The great brain, 
cerebrum, in the upper part of the head and over the 
eyes, is the immediate seat of intellect, and in halves ; in 
other words, there is one on each side, divided above 
from each other, in the middle, by a membrane. Under 
this, in the lower and back part of the head, is the cere- 
helium, or little brain, belonging to the animal system, 
and totally different in function from the other : this, too, 
is in two pieces. 

Below the point on the neck bone on which the two 
lateral cords, termed medulla oblonga, lie, extending with- 
in the bones, the whole length of the spine or back bone, 
the same cords are seen, giving out between the points, 
ribs, &c, branches, called spinal nerves. Those within 

What is the general structure of the brain ? 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 145 

the chest take the name of thoracic nerves ; still lower, 
between the ribs, intercostal ; and still further down, be- 
tween the bones of the back, the lumbar nerves. The 
limbs of a tree, shooting out from the trunk, precisely 
represent this part of the anatomy of the spinal marrow. 

From the head to the termination of the spinal marrow, 
two cords, two brains, two little brains, and two distinct 
sets of lateral nerves exist, lying in juxtaposition, inti- 
mately united by the decussation of fibres, which run 
from one to the other. 

This cerebral substance is so soft, that without its 
enveloping membranes it would fall to pieces by its own 
weight. These membranes possess but a very slight 
degree of sensibility, being of a mealy whiteness, and 
in the skull possessing but little elasticity, though in the 
body and limbs this quality necessarily exists, or they 
would become elongated and flaccid in the constant 
flexions of the extremities. 

Whilst this nervous matter preserves its vitality, it 
preserves a slight degree of cohesion, but after death it 
speedily begins to decay, and ultimately melts down into 
an oily fluid. The compositions of the pulp of the nerves 
and the brain are precisely the same in appearance in 
life, and chemical analysis conclusively presents the same 
elements after death. 

When wounded, even badly, the brain feels no pain, 
although the very centre of sensation. It is not uncom- 
mon for portions of the brain to escape through fractures 
of the skull, and yet the person perfectly recover, and 
never suffer, in any quality of his mind, from the loss of 
this important corporal substance. 

All the nerves which go from the head or spinal mar- 
row, however much they may be distributed within the 
muscles, invariably run towards the surface of the body. 
They do not end in blunt extremities under the skin, like 
the cut end of a twine ; on the contrary, they are so 
infinitely subdivided, that the single cord which we find 
between two points of the spine may finally become a 
perfect brush, in the course of distribution, and lost in the 
masses of flesh through which it travels, till it can no 
longer be recognised by the naked eye. 

From whence originate the nerves ? Have the cerebral membranes sen- 
What is their course ? sibility ? 

J3 



146 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 
Fig. 65. 




Explanation of Fig. 65* 

S, the annular ligament which binds down the muscles and vessels to 
the ankle bone, to keep them in place. JR, the extensor brevis di&ito- 
rum, which assists in extending the toes. Fig. 1, superficial threads of 
the deep-seated nerves of the leg and instep, emerging upon the top, and 
losing themselves in the skin . Fisr. 2, are Jong, but superficial cutaneous 
branches of the tibial nerve, sent into the skin and cellular membrane at 
the root of the toes and ball of the great toe. The trunk, from which 
these twigs have their origin, originated within the pelvis, yet, notwith- 
standing they were concealed deep in the flesh, the whole length of the 
limb, they finally make their appearance at the surface. This figure^ 
therefore, is designed to illustrate the position maintained in the text, 
viz., that all the nerves have a direction towards the external surface of 
the body. 



THE MECHANISM Of THE NERVES. 

As the brain, all experience proves, is the seat of intel- 
lect, so, also, incontestable evidence teaches us that the 
nerves are parts which are susceptible of painful or plea- 
surable sensations. T.hus a pie£e of sugar is grateful to 
the gustatory or tasting nerves of the tongue ; but to* 
bacco, before accustomed to its nauseating character, has 
* ■ ■ ...... . ... . — „ . ' >» ■ ' ■ ■ 

Where is the seat of intellect ? . 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 147 

a directly opposite effect. Pressure on the sciatic or great 
nerve of the leg, by sitting too long in one position, pro- 
duces the disagreeable feeling commonly called sleep in 
the foot; if, however, the attitude is not changed, to 
relieve the pressure, a partial palsy of the limb must 
ensue. 

Difficult as it is to ascertain precisely the structure of 
the inner substance of the nerves, it is reasonable to infer, 
from analogy, as the substance is so exactly like that of 
the brain, that they are constituted of a multitude of 
minute, soft, pulpy parallel cords. Instead of saying that 
the nerves have their origin in the brain or spinal mar- 
row, they should be called the prolongations of the brain. 
Their internal substance, both physically and chemically 
considered, presents the same results. They are the 
tentaculae of the brain, analogous to the feelers of insects, 
by which it takes cognizance of external things : the 
instruments of the will, and the ever faithful sentinels at 
the outposts, giving the earliest and most certain intelli- 
gence of whatever is of consequence to the safety and 
wellbeing of the individual. 

If they possess an organization like the brain, or, in 
fact, are simply a prolongation of it into the extremities 
of the limbs, the question may be asked, why they are not 
conscious in their individual capacity, and why it is 
necessary to make reference to the superior mass of the 
same material, within the skull. 

In the very lowest orders of animals, such is the case, 
to a certain extent : the worms are without brain, yet 
they pursue unvarying instinctive actions, and avoid 
enemies, or caress friends, with as much certainty as 
those possessing a well marked one. 

Nothing can be more perplexing than the nerves, being 
of all sizes, from a quarter of an inch in diameter to 
hair-like threads, invisible to the naked eye. 

Certain it is, that this apparent confusion presents the 
same appearance in all animals of the same species. 
Wherever there is a twig in one body leading to an organ, 
precisely such another, fulfilling exactly the same office, 
may be demonstrated in another. A curious illustration 
of this remark is strikingly manifested in the nerves of 
the human hand. 



Are the neryes in composition like Have worms a brain ? 
♦he brain ? 



148 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 



The arteries are not invariably constant, or undeviating 
travellers of a particular muscle. With the nerves the 



Fig. 66 




Explanations of Fig, 66. 

MUSCLES. 

A, Pectoral muscle. 

B, Deltoid muscle. 

C, Latissimus dor si muscle. 

D, Serratus major anticus muscle. 

E, Biceps flexor brachii. 

F, Bound tendon of the biceps } crossing the elbow joint. 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 149 

G, The broad expansion of the biceps, shooting into the fassia of the 
fore-arm. 
H, Triceps extensor muscle. 

1, Brackius interims muscle, an auxiliary to the biceps. 
K, Coraco brachialis 'muscle, an assistant to the deltoides. 

L, Supinator brevis muscle, turns the palm of the hand and fore-arm 
forward. 

M, Supinator longus, operates in unison with the brevis. 

N, Extensor radialis longior. extends the fore-arm. 

O, Many flexor muscles of tne fingers, all arising from one point. 

P, Flexor digitorum profundus, bends the joint of the fingers. 

R, Annular ligament of the wrist, bending the tendons in a groove. 

S, Short muscles, forming the ball of the thumb. 

T, Flexor and abductor muscles of the little finger. 

Febves. 

1,1, Radial nerve. 

2, 2, Ulnar do. 

3, External cutaneous nerve. 

4, Muscular spiral nerve; supplies the flesh, on the back side of the 
arm and skin. 

5, A communicating twig. 

6, Articular nerve, round the joint. 

7, Internal cutaneous, supplies the skin under side of the arm. 

8, External cutaneous, again; passing through a muscle, and then 
becoming a cutaneous nerve. 

9, Branch of the external, going to the back of the thumb. 

10, Muscular spiral nerve. 

11, A branch of the external cutaneous. 
L2L, The- radial nerve. ) rvflprpnt vipws 
t3, The ulnar nerve. \ Ultierent views * 

14, A branch of the ulna, to the back of the hand. 

15, Distribution of the radial nerve to the thumb, fore finger, middle 
and one side of the ring finger. 

16, Distribution of the ulna nerve to the other side of the ring, and 
both sides of the little finger. 

N. B. We have exhibited in this plate a mass of muscles and nerves, 
that the reader may have some idea of the complex machinery necessary 
to the perfection of one single limb. 

case is altered: they are constant, as it respects- the 
origin, course, and ultimate distribution. Go where they 
may, a precise number of branches are required, to be 
distributed to every portion and piece in which a blood- 
vessel enters. Usually, the deep-seated nerves accompa- 
ny the arteries ; and the nerves of the skin keep in the 
track of the superficial veins. 

Though the nerves are smalt* and uninfluenced by 
volition, exact order is preserved* or the same effects 
could not be produced in two individuals from the same 
causes. 



Are the nerves distributed alike in What vessels do they accompany ? 
every person V 

13* 



150 ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 

Without nerves there could be no sensation: with- 
out them, neither painful or pleasurable emotions would 
be recognised; without them, organized beings would be 
completely motionless, without locomotion, and without 
perception or consciousness. 

It matters not how perfectly the muscles are developed, 
or advantageously arranged ; if there were no mode of 
subjecting them to the influence of the brain, they would 
be of no kind of consequence. 

Were the nerves in the wrist divided, the ability to 
clench the fingers would be lost; nor could it be recovered, 
unless a re-union of the divided portions were effected. 
These are the voluntary nerves. 

Those denominated involuntary, administering to the 
involuntary muscles, are equally important to the hidden 
regions in which they are found. When the breathing 
nerve of the diaphragm is separated, the midriff no longer 
renders assistance in respiration. The muscles of the 
chest are compelled to carry on the process of breathing 
entirely alone. By dividing minute twigs, as they creep 
into the vocal box of a dog, the muscles are paralyzed, 
and the animal can never afterwards bark. 

Digestion in the stomach may be interrupted by cutting 
the main trunks of the nerves. Even the functions of 
the liver and kidneys might be checked in the same way, 
were it possible to reach the nerves going to them, with- 
out violence. 

Notwithstanding the heart is kept in continual motion 
by the presence of the blood, if its nerves were separated, 
so that the communication were interrupted with the 
brain and spinal marrow, it would cease to pulsate, 
though its irritability, an original endowment of the mus- 
cle, might remain a considerable time. And still further, 
a wound or compression of the spinal marrow completely 
paralyzes the whole body, which, if not speedily relieved, 
ends in death. 

For the sake of method, anatomists have made a regu- 
lar classification of the nerves : — 

From the brain, there are nine pairs, a majority of 
which are the nerves of sense ; in other words, they are 
expended on the organs of sense, as the ear, eye, nose, 
and tongue. 

What nerves are voluntary ? Are the nerves classified ? 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 
Fig. 67. 



151 




Explanations of Fig, 67. 

A, A, Cerebrum^ or brain. 

B, B, Cerebellum, or little brain. 

C, C, Crura cerebri, or union of the fibres of the brain. 



152 ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 

D, D, Crura cerebelli, union of the two sides of the little brain., 

E, E, E, Spinal marrow. 

1, 1, Branches of the 5th nerves, so often noticed in this work. 

2, 2, Branches of the sub-occipital nerves. 

3, 3, Branches of the four inferior cervical nerves, and the first dorsal, 
forming the axillary plexus, from whence all the nerves of the arm and 
fingers have their origin. 

4, 4, 4, 4, Branches of the dorsal nerves. 

5, 5, Lumbar nerves. 

6, 6, Sacral nerves. 

Issuing from between the bones of the neck, there are 
eight pairs ; from between the joints of the spine, twelve ; 
from the loins, five pairs more ; and from the sacrum 
or last bone of the vertebral column, five more ; making 
a total of thirty-nine sets of nerves, from the brain and 
spinal cord. 

THIRTY PAIRS OF SPINAL NERVES. 

These are first divided into Eight pairs of Cervical, 
coming out between the bones of the neck, on either side, 
from the spinal marrow, to be distributed to the muscles. 

Twelve pairs of Dorsal, — in like manner, coming out 
between the dorsal vertebrae of the back. 

Five pairs of Lumbar, — from between the lumbar or 
joints of the loins. 

Five pairs of Sacral, — being a branch or termination 
of the spinal marrow in the os sacrum. Several cords, 
coming through the several openings, unite to form the 
great sciatic nerve of the leg. 

Another circumstance should^ not be lost sight of in 
this general survey of these organs : — viz., the well 
established fact, that two threads may arise from the same 
root, and yet they sustain widely different offices in the 
economy : one may contribute to the contraction of a 
muscle, and the other its relaxation. 

We are warranted in believing, that even in a minute 
nerve, which appears a single cord, that a number of dis- 
tinct parallel filaments are lying side by side* enveloped 
in the same tissue, whose functions are widely different 
from each other. 

Of the nine pairs of nerves from the brain, let us pursue 
them to their ultimate destination, not,, however,, with the 

How many pairs are given out from How many from the loins .1 

the brain ? Can two functions be performed by 

How many from the spine ? one nerve ? 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 153 

vain expectation of ascertaining how it is that they exert 
an influence, but simply to contemplate the broad chart 
of sympathies which is thus spread for distributing and 
controlling that vitality which is so essential to order, to 
consciousness and to physical perfectibility. 

First, the olfactory nerves, taking their rise in the 
brain, having gone but little way within the skull, arrive 
at the top of the nose, where they suddenly divide into 
innumerable hair-drawn threads, which are lost in the 
lining membrane of the nose. 

The second are the optic, expanding, when they have 
penetrated the globe of the eye, through the back side, 
into a thin web, properly named the retina, which is the 
seat of vision. 

In this instance, arising from the same substance as 
the olfactory to all human appearance, is a nerve which 
can only be influenced by the presence of light. 

When the nervous system is agitated by disease, even 
in the darkest apartment, the participation which the 
optic nerve has with the diseased action of the whole, 
produces the sensation of vision, and nothing else. If it 
cannot be the bearer of this one item of intelligence, it can 
do nothing at all. If another sensation is to be conducted 
to the mind, even if it relates to a mote on the face of 
the eye, another set of nerves, entirely independent of the 
optic, must be the bearers. There is no property in com- 
mon; no relationship allowing the one to perform the 
functions of the other ; yet they both seem to possess the 
same general structure, the same component parts, and 
have an origin from the same fountain-head, and depend 
for their vitality upon the same circulation. 

The third nerve is generally distributed to the muscles 
of the eye, to give guidance to several of them. 

Further ; the fourth nerve, arising from the brain, long, 
slender, and hair-like, is dispensed altogether upon one 
muscle, the one which rolls the eye downward towards 
the shoulder. 

The fifth nerve is the most intricate to understand. 
Lying almost in contact with the great artery of the 
brain, in the base of the skull, the single cord spreads 



Where are the olfactory nerves ? What nerve is particularly intri- 
Give the name and distribution of cate ? 
the second pair of nerves. 



154 ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK, 

itself out into the form of a reddish, fleshy pad, from 
which three distinct cords, all distinguished for their size, 
have an origin. One of the three darts towards the eye, 
where it commingles with those we have been describing. 
The second branch creeps through an orifice, and having 
reached the back part of the upper jaw, sends on a lash 
of fine lines, which find an entrance into the substance of 
the bones, and there furnishes the root of each tooth with 
one of them. 

Fig. 68. 




Explanations of Fig. 68. 

This plate will give some general idea of the intricacy of the nerves 
about the face. The most difficult part of the neurology of the head is 
concealed by the bones, though we have adverted to the individual nerves, 
which have their origin in the brain. 

2, The optic nerve, nerve of vision, second in the order. 

3, Motor oculi, or third pair, arising from the brain. 

4, Trochlearis, fourth pair. 

5, Trigemini, with its three great branches, spoken of in the text. 

A, First division of the fifth nerve, called the opthalmic branchy which 
divides again into — 

B, C The. frontal nerve. 

C, < The lachrymal nerve. 

D, t The nasal nerve. 

E, Second division of the fifth nerve. 

F, That branch of it going to the teeth and skin of the upper jaw. 

G, A ganglion. 

H, Branches going to the palate and throat. 
I, Viclean nerve. 

6, Sixth nerve of the brain. 

K, Origin of the great sympathetic nerve, spoken of in the text. 

L, Its additional branch, from the Videan nerve. 

M, Superior or first ganglion of the sympathetic nerve, i 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 155 

N, Third division of thejlflh nerve. 

O, First division of the 'third branch of the fifth nerve, going to the 
tongue. This nerve is the organ of taste. 

P, A branch of the gustatory, or tasting nerve, going to the ear and 
crossing the drum. 

Q,, That division of the fifth rrerve which supplies the teeth of the 
under jaw, and finally comes out on the chin, to supply the muscles of 
expression. 

7, Seventh pair of nerves from the brain, or auditory, being the nerve 
of hearing. 

Perhaps, with all our care, the reader will scarcely understand the 
scheme which has here been presented. It is not our object to be so 
minute as to weary, and yet we desire to be sufficiently particular to be 
useful. 

The third branch makes its way out of the head, and 
directs its course to the inner side of the angle of the 
under jaw, where it enters a smooth canal, and in like 
manner furnishes each of the fangs of the under teeth 
with a minute nerve. 

A recollection of the origin of the dental nerves will 
explain the reason why a sound tooth in the opposite jaw 
sympathizes with the pain of a diseased one. 

To the eye, again, the sixth nerve goes. Such a liberal 
supply of nervous influence as is thus given to this one 
organ, argues very clearly its importance. In no other 
portion of the machine is there a parallel distribution of 
nerves. 

The seventh is a double nerve : two cords, quite in 
contact, the one hard and the other soft, strike the ex- 
tremity of that portion of the temporal bone, within the 
skull, containing the beautiful apparatus of the ear. One 
of them is expended upon the inside, and is the acoustic 
nerve : the other pays no regard to the ear, but, working 
through the solid bones, shows itself on the cheek, very 
near the middle of the external ear. 

What circumstance of organization prepares these 
nerves, arising, if not at the same point, at least from the 
same mass, for performing such opposite functions, as 
hearing and feeling, must long remain an inexplicable 
paradox. 

Still further in the series comes the eighth pair, or par 
vagum, sliding out at the base of the skull, in company 
with the internal jugular vein. Coursing down the side 
of the neck, it dips into the chest, running through its 

From what nerves do the teeth Use of the seventh pair ? 
receive twigs ? What course has the eighth? 



156 ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 

whole extent, and finally shows itself in the cavity of the 
abdomen. From its first exit from the brain, it drops off 
twig after twig, nearly at right angles, for the superficial 
muscles on the throat, and the vocal tube ; to the larynx ; 
to the wind-pipe ; the lobes of the lungs on either side ; 
to the heart ; the great blood-vessel of the body ; to the 
stomach, liver, spleen, kidneys ; and, to all appearance, 
neglects no viscera in any of the great cavities. No 
other nerve, but the sympathetic, seems to have such 
extensive relations, nor is any one of more consequence 
to organic life. 

Reflect, for a moment, on the extraordinary offices of 
this one nerve. Both vessels and muscles, on its first ap- 
pearance, . mutually depend upon its influence. Next, a 
class of involuntary muscles within the vocal box cannot 
be varied in their contractions without its presence. Even 
the vibration of the vocal cords, the instruments of voice, 
would be unserviceable without it : the lungs, stomach, 
liver, and the intestinal mechanism would stop, and a 
universal failure of all the vital apparatus would inevita- 
bly ensue. 

One more — the ninth — the lingual nerve, closes the 
series from the brain. Without it there would be no 
ability for moving the tongue. 

Let us re-examine the scheme of the nerves arising 
from the spinal marrow. 

That prolongation of the brain, which lies in the canal 
of the spine, gives out two sets of nerves, as from the two 
sides of the brain, but vastly larger in size. Besides 
being large, several of them unite together so closely that 
it is really difficult to separate them, for the purpose, it is 
supposed, of establishing a wide circle of sympathies, and 
a combination of influence upon the muscles. Notwith- 
standing the apparent confusion, the most exact order is 
maintained. 

No man has been competent to an explanation of this 
complex mechanism. Though emanating from a con- 
densed part of the brain, in which the intellectual opera- 
tions are not admitted to be in force, a class of nerves 
have an origin, which are under the most complete sub- 



With what viscera does it hold an given ? 

intimate connexion ? From whence have two distinct sets 

To what or?an is the ninth pair of nerves th^ir origin ? 






ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 



157 



jection to another portion of the same substance. So it 
is in respect to all the dorsal, lumbar and sacral nerves. 



Fig. 69. 



2 


\ g e a 
i > 

! 




i 
I i 
i i 

i i 

! j , 




9feS85Eif 




Explanations of Fig. 69. 

This plan shows the distribution of some of the nerves of the arm. 
a, a, The cephalic vein, running between the pectoralis major and 
deltoid muscle. 
6, The basilic vein. 

c, The vena mediana lon^a, sending off. 

d, The median basilic vein. 

e, The median cephalic vein. 

./, The internal cutaneous nerve. 

f', The external muscular cutaneous nerve. 
, A lymphatic gland. 
i, The fascia covering the muscles of the upper arm. 
k, The pectoralis major. 
/, The deltoid muscle. 

These considerations are curious in themselves, and in 
the mechanic, the scholar and the philosopher, excite an 
ardent desire to comprehend the reason for the one, and 
the cause of the other. All the boasted and lofty preten- 
sions of philosophy are inadequate to the solution of these 
problems in the laws of the animal economy. 

GREAT SYMPATHETIC NERVE. 

As a point of union between the nerves of the braim 
and those of the spinal marrow, to maintain a sympathy 
14 



158 ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 

of connexion between the voluntary and involuntary or- 
gans, is interposed the sympathetic nerve, which traverses 
the whole extent of the chest and abdomen, sending fibres 
in all directions, to every viscus in the body. Thus, by 
this one nerve, a mutual dependence is preserved among 
all the various portions of the living system. 

Nerves are certainly the organs of our senses. How, 
by the application of bodies to the different parts, a sensa- 
tion is produced, will never, we fear, be clearly explained, 
nor can we account for a corresponding change in the 
brain, to produce an idea. Neither is it known how sen- 
sation is conveyed by the nerves to the brain. 

Sensation is a property peculiar to the nervous fibre, as 
irritability is to the muscle. 



THE SENSES. 

The senses are divided into internal and external. 
The internal are ideas, which the mind forms, and may 
be produced by the agency of the external senses, or 
otherwise excited, as memory, imagination, conscience, 
and the passions. 

• ' . " EXTERNAL SENSES. 

Hearing, Seeing, Feeling, Smelling, and Tasting. 

THE EAR. 

The ear, that organ by which we are made sensible of 
the impression of sound, is a very complicated instru- 
ment, and a beautiful piece of mechanism. 

It is a curious circumstance in the economy of organ- 
ized beings, that the central portion of the human ear, 
termed the sacculus vestibuli, hereafter to be described, is 
the basis of the apparatus of hearing in all animals, with 

Do you recollect the office of the How are the senses arranged ? 

sympathetic? Name the external senses? 

What is the use of nerves ? Give a definition of the ear. 
Where is the seat of sensation ? 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK, 159 

the exception of insects, but becoming more and more 
complex as inferior grades approximate the physical per- 
fectibility of man. 

Sound being a vibratory motion of the air, first put in 
motion by a solid body, is collected by the ear, as the 
pulsations travel onward, and transmitted directly to the 
auditory nerve. * 

Those beings only which are denominated locomotive, 
having the power of moving themselves from one place to 
another, have an ear. Without this sense, of such vast 
importance to man, inferior tribes would be constantly 
exposed to dangers and even destruction. Nature has 
not been neglectful in granting the necessary means of 
happiness to every being, in proportion to its wants in the 
sphere in which it is destined to live ; nor partial to man, 
in the development of all his senses, to the exclusion of 
other animals, whose physical propensities, necessities 
and circumstances are of as much importance to them, in 
the scale of existence, as his own. 

EXTERNAL EAR.t 

That appendage termed auricula, pinna, or external ear, 
divested of the skin, is a thin, delicate piece of cartilage, 
quite elastic, and bearing some resemblance, in this re- 
spect, to parchment. On its outer surface it is concave, 
but thrown into deep semicircular grooves, which termi- 
nate in one large dish, surrounding the canal that enters 
the bones, called concha, because it resembles a shell. 
The lines or eminences, lying between the furrows, have 
definite names, as helix, antihelix, tragus and antitragus, 
and, lastly, the fat pendulous portion, on the under edge 
of the ear, — in which trinkets are worn, in civilized 
society, in humble imitation of genuine savage life, — the 
lohus. 

* The antennae of insects are considered the onl} r organs that convey a 
sensation analogous to hearing. By the vibrations communicated to the 
body through these, they are probably made susceptible of simple sono- 
rous impressions. 

t So called from aura, air. 

What produces sound? hearing? 

Name the central portion of the What is the auricle? 

organ of hearing. Where is f he concha ? 
Do all animals possess the sense of 



160 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 



Fig. 70. 

Explanations of Fig. 70. 

This is a well marked ear of 
a man, drawn from life. 
a to e, The helix i forming the 

rim. 
a, The upper end or com- 
mencement of the rim, slop- 
ing into the concha. 
6, Part of the edge lost in the 

face. 
c, rf, Prominent from the head. 
e, The fold terminating in the 

lobule of the ear. 
fto m, The antihelix. 
f } g, The upper end divided 
into two ridges,— A, the union 
of them,— -f and g. 
i } k, Lower end of the antihe- 
lix, continued at i into the 
concha, and at k into the an- 
titragus. 
/, The tragus, covering the en- 
trance to the ear, like a post 
at the corner of a street, to 
prevent sudden injury, 
m, Antitragus. 

n, Lobe of the ear, usually bored, 
o, o, Furrow between the helix and antihelix. 
p, The boat-like depression between the lines of the antihelix* 
x, The concha. 
r, The beginning of the meatus auditorus. 




MUSCLES. 

Although in the human species there are muscles 
which seem at first sight to have been designed for mov- 
ing the ear in different directions, their office is expressly 
to keep it tense, equally on the stretch at all points, to 
increase its vibratory property. Occasionally, individuals 
are seen who have such development of the muscles as 
to be able to move their ears at pleasure. Wags and 
buffoons are sometimes expert in the exercise. There 
are three of these muscles. 

All such animals as keep their ears habitually erect, as 
the fox, lynx, cat, horse, ox, ass, and various species of 
the dog, maintain them in that position by the strength 
of the muscles, which are under the control of the will. 

It is necessary for safety on the one hand, or success in 
seizing prey, by surprise, on the other, for the animal to 



Has the external ear any muscles ? Their use 1 
If so, how many ? 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 
Fig. 71. 



161 




Explanations of Fig. 71. 

In this plate is represented the muscles peculiar to the external ear. 
a, d, e, the cartilage of the ear, as seen on that side looking towards the 
head. 

The attolens aurem, or lifter up of the ear, marked /, m, shows where 
it becomes tendinous on the bones of the head. o,p, attached to promi- 
nences. 

g to t, the anterior auris, placed between the face and ear. q, r, the 
portion of it connected to the muscle of the forehead, growing narrower 
at s, and inserted into the helix at t. 

u, z, Two muscles, or rather two portions of one, retrakcntes aurem, 
to draw the ear back from the face. 

u, v, w, x, The upper or larger portion, consisting of fleshy fibres, u, 
v, w. 

y, z, The inferior portion of the same muscle. 

have a distinct auricular perception, accompanied .by a 
nice sense of smell. By remaining perfectly quiet, the 
ears are directed to and fro, as circumstances may require, 
to receive most favorably and forcibly the sonorous rays, 
without being obliged to move the head.^ Elephants, 
hounds, besides an almost endless catalogue of mamma- 
lia, have pendulous ears, as though the design was to 
defend the orifice. In these examples, the muscles are 
small, as they are in man. 

* An ear trumpet for deaf people, instead of being like the funnel of a 
common bugle, snould have a broad plate, grooved, and, indeed, wrought 
in exact imitation of the external human ear. This is the best mode of 
directing sound into the head, or nature would have constructed it dif- 
ferently. 

14* 



162 ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 

Birds have but a slight rim, approaching in outline the 
pinna : lizards, of which there are about forty varieties, 
serpents, and other reptiles, have nothing externally re- 
sembling an ear : in some it is difficult, on close exami- 
nation, to discover the precise spot where the ear is 
located. Fishes are also destitute of an external organ; 
and yet all these families, including the amphibious, as 
frogs, turtles, and the like, have a beautifully constructed 
internal ear, as remarkable, so far as a mechanical ar- 
rangement of parts is concerned, in conveying the pulsa- 
tion of sound, as that of the most favored musician. 



EAR TUBE 



# 



When the temporal or side bone of the head, contain- 
ing, entirely, the internal ear, is carefully sawed in twain, 
the canal of which we are speaking will be found about 
three quarters of an inch in length, and somewhat con- 
tracted towards its inner extremity, and, on an average, 
a little less than a quarter of an inch in diameter. This 
passage is a gentle curve, as the tube, from the external 
opening, rises upward ; but at half its length turns down- 
ward again, and there bulges out in shape something like 
the bowl of a spoon. A delicate rim, like a moulding, 
rises on the edge of this expanded mouth, for sustaining 
the drum-head, soon to be noticed, very much as a hoop 
is nailed within the mouth of a barrel, near the edge, to 
keep the head from falling in. To afford greater surface, 
that the drum-head may be considerably larger than the 
extremity of the tube would allow, were it stretched per- 
pendicularly across, it is sloped, so that it requires an 
oval cover, under such circumstances, very much larger 
than if it were round, and fitted to the square end of the 
pipe. All this may be examined in the temporal bone of 
a horse, sheep or dog's skull, as they are found bleaching 
in the fields. In these animals the resemblance to the 

* In books, termed the meatus auditorius externus, — simply meaning 
the external passage to the inner cavities. 

How does the external ear of birds ratus found ? 

differ from those of some other Give a general description of the 

animals ? tube which admits sound into, the 

Have reptiles ears ? interior. 

In what bone is the auditory appa- Where is the drum of the ear ? 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 



163 



human ear is particularly striking. The common skin 
of the face is carried within the tube, for its lining, but 
perforated in numerous places, by the ducts of delicate 
little bags, lying between the bone and skin, which are 
constantly secreting and pouring out a bitter, nauseous 
wax. The object of this excretion is twofold, viz. first, 
to keep the lining moist and pliable; and secondly, to 
kill insects that may intrude there. ^ Crossing this canal 
from the sides are strong, short hairs, intersecting each 
other in such a manner, that an insect must overcome the 
resistance of those pikes, or chevaux-de-frise, in case 

Fig. 72. 

Explanations of Fig. 72. 
This has been an exceedingly 
difficult plan to execute, so as to 
give the exact relation of parts ; 
hence it is very much foreshort- 
ened. 

c to d, — cc, the meatus extemus, 
as it appears, taken from the 
bone ; 6, c, its two curvatures ; — 
the first e ; the second c : — dd, the 
oblique slant, like a spoon bowl, 
at the inner end, covered by the 
drum-head, spoken of in the text. 
e, The membrana tympani, 
stretched on its bony hoop, bulg- 
ing inward. 

The remaining parts, beyond 
the boundary of the membrane, 
remain to be described, although 
represented here for the sake of 
keeping up the connexion of parts 
in the mind. 
f, g, h, The malleus; f, its handle - % g, its long handle; A, the head 
or bulb. 

i, k, incus, or anvil ; i, short, and k, long processes ; m, stapes. 
V, H, A, m, n, p, The labyrinth ; n y p, the cochlea ; n, the beginning, 
p, termination ; m, the vestibulum.t 

*\Ear wax is certain death to insects that feed upon it ; though its 
composition is such that they cannot restrain their appetites when pent 
up where it is. Naturalists have taken a hint from this, to prevent the 
depredations of vermin on dried preparations in cabinets, by washing 
them in decoctions of aloes or other vegetable bitters. 

t I have found considerable difficulty in demonstrating this organ, 
without very large models : one now in my cabinet, made of wood, mag- 
nifies the internal ear three feet, which can be seen- and understood at a 
distance in a large hall. Formerly, when I taught anatomy in a Medical 
Institution, it was customary to suppose the college an ear, and thus 
illustrate its intricacies by constant reference to the apartments and 




How is the tube lined? 

Of what utility are the hairs grow- 



ing within the tube ? 



164 ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 

the wax * does not arrest its progress, before reaching 
the drum-head, where its peregrinations are impassably 
limited.! 

THE DRUM, OR MEMBRANA TYMPANI.t 

From the foregoing description of the canal, the exact 
locality of the drum-head will be understood. Fitted to 
the rim of bone, in a manner similar to the parchment 
over the barrel of a snare drum, it is kept perfectly tense, 
but by an arrangement of the fibres peculiar to its organi- 
zation. It is oval, and somewhat concave outwardly, and 
so transparent that objects can be seen through it, being 
of the color of white oiled paper. Any person of common 
ingenuity can dissect this beautiful membrane in the 
head of a dead fowl, with the point of a knife. It then 
presents a striking resemblance to a battledoor. This 
closes up the extremity of the tube, in a healthy ear; 
notwithstanding, it is frequently ruptured by the firing of 
heavy guns, inflammation, and other accidents, without 
producing deafness. Across this drum a fine thread of a 
nerve is drawn, called corda tympani, which gives it the 
requisite sensibility and connexion with the system. 
When a pin-head is introduced far enough to touch the 
drum-head, an exquisitely acute pain is the consequence, 
from pressing this nerve. 

passage ways of that edifice. Instructers will derive great advantage from 
a similar course ; by considering the schoolhouse, when explaining the 
organ to their pupils, the internal ear, and the front door the drum. 

* At birth trie tube is filled with a thick mucus, which, in some chil- 
dren, unless speedily removed, forms a cake of hard wax, completely 
closing it ; and by the time the articulative organs are developed, the 
child is actually deaf and dumb. There seems to be a peculiar predis- 
position to this in some families. In others, children, after having once 
talked, lose their hearing at four or five years of age, and become perma- 
nently deaf and dumb. 

t When the glands are diseased in consequence of a chronic inflamma- 
tion, a thin, purulent discharge takes place, giving the individual, in 
some instances, trouble, inconvenience, and pain through life. I have 
seen a skull, in which the entire tube on one side was closed up by a 
deposition of bone. The opposite ear was partially diseased in the same 
manner, but the peculiar circumstances of the case, while the person was 
alive, could not be ascertained. 

t Lobsters, crabs, and, in fact, all that remarkable class of animals 
whose skeletons are outside of the body, in the form of a shell, have their 
ears placed at the extremities of projecting points. The lobster's can be 
' detected at the end of a short stump, near the root of the long feelers ; 
it consists of a perforated bony stump, having a membrane stretched over 
it, covering a drop of fluid, in which floats the auditory nerve. 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 165 

We have seen men with the membranes ruptured on 
both sides, which was inferred from the fact, that in 
smoking, they puffed the fumes, for amusement, out at 
their ears ; yet the sense of hearing did not appear im- 
paired. This will be subsequently explained. The 
deafness of old people might in some instances be alle- 
viated by puncturing the membrane, which, by age, has 
become thickened and inelastic. 

No one can be in doubt as respects the office of this 
membrane : it receives the sonorous rays, having a broad 
surface, and being on the stretch, is put in vibratory mo- 
tion by the slightest pulsations in the air, which it trans- 
mits to the still more important apparatus within. 

We have remarked that reptiles and fishes have no 
discernible external orifice : the external surface appears 
smooth, as though they were destitute of this sense. 
Under the skin, however, and in the bone answering to 
the temporal one in man, there is a round hole, growing 
larger within. This cavity is the tympanum or drum- 
barrel, answering to the apartment beyond the drum-head 
in men and quadrupeds. The common skin which is 
thus drawn over the mouth of the tympanum, acts pre- 
cisely as the drum-head does, — vibrating to the least 
noise, with exceeding nicety. In the economy of reptiles, 
those scavengers of the earth, created to wallow in filth, 
at the threshold of organic life, an external opening would 
be soon destroyed, by being filled with mud, gravel, or 
insects. The skin over the frog's ear and the chameleon 
is very dense, shining, and tremulous. Frogs, particular- 
ly, have a splendid circular piece of skin over the tympa- 
num, just back of their large, prominent eyes. There is 
a necessity for uncommon delicacy in their case, as their 
ear is constructed for hearing with equal precision in 
water as well as air.^ 

* In that class of serpents which are covered with scales, the external 
contrivance of a tense skin over the internal ear is far inferior to the 
frog or lizard's : to the under side of a cluster of thin scales, wedged in 
the loose skin, a slender bone, in figure like the pestle of a mortar, runs 
into the tube, towards the brain, and plays into the fenestra ovalis. 

All the variety of serpents are distinguished for their delicacy in the 
perception of sound. The boa family, particularly, are those" which 
exhibit the most satisfaction in music. The writer has carefully exa- 

Can the membrane be ruptured people sometimes be remedied? 

without detriment to the organ? How is this membrane arranged iq, 
How could the deafness of aged reptiles ? 



166 ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 

INTERNAL EAR. 

All parts beyond the drum-head are collectively called 
the labyrinth, in consequence, probably, of their intricacy. 

To understand the arrangement of the apartments to 
which the reader is now to be introduced, requires pa- 
tience, as well as close observation, or the mechanism 
cannot be comprehended. First, the 

DRUM-BARREL OR TYMPANUM. 

Directly behind the membrane is a small room, of the 
capacity of a common white bean. Its name is derived 
from a word meaning a drum, as it is one in office, but 
having, instead of one head, like the kettle, or two, as in 
the snare drum, it has three heads; the largest of which 
is towards the outer ear, while at the other end of the 
barrel are two little ones. 

Three distinct apartments, one beyond the other, which 
in anatomical works have further minute subdivisions, 
collectively make up the labyrinth. First, the tympanum, 
just adverted to; secondly, the vestibule; and, thirdly, 
the cochlea. In connexion with these are certain tubes, 
having sundry barbarous, unintelligible names. 

Behind the ear, a hard knob of bone may be felt, with 
the finger, (mastoid process,) on which that muscle is 
fastened, which, with its fellow on the opposite side, 
brings the head forward ; within, it is hollow, being full 
of conical cells resembling the spokes of a wheel, growing 
smaller as they unite in one pipe, which opens into the 
drum-barrel. Physiologists agree that the use of these 
cells is for reverberating sound, that it may gain strength 
by being reflected from wall to wall, in order to excite a 
stronger sensation when conveyed to the nerve : these 

mined a boa constrictor, which, when fully grown, is horrible to the sight, 
that was inattentive to sounds, except when hungry. At such times, the 
scratch of a pin against the wall roused the monster to unceasing watch- 
fulness. The ears of the land tortoise and the rattlesnake do not differ 
as much as the physiologist might at first suppose, though in the water 
turtle, constituted Tor hearing alternately in air and water, there is a 

1)erceptible difference. In the first a single bone is found ; while in the 
atter, in addition to the bone, there are fine chalky particles, which move 
against each other, to propagate the motion or noise in the water to the 
ramifications of the nerve. 

Where is the labyrinth ? Of what service is the mastoid pro- 

Describe the tympanum. cess ? 

Vestibule. 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 



167 



are particularly large in some animals. 1 * A similar piece 
of mechanism is discoverable in the cheek bones, and 
even the centre bone of the skull, for reverberating and 
strengthening the voice. Lions have large cavities in the 
bones of their heads and faces, on purpose to increase the 
intensity of the vibrations ; hence their characteristic 
roar. 

Fig. 73. 




Explanation of Pig. 73. 

One principal object of inserting this figure, was for the purpose of 
showing the relation which the Eustachian tube bears to the tympanum. 
It will be recollected that this tunnel- shaped canal opens in the back 
part of the mouth. 

a, the external ear ; b, the semicircular canals ; c, the meatus, or tube 
from the extreme concha to the tympanum ; d, spicula of bone, not essen- 
tial to remember ; e, the incus ; "/*, the cochlea ; g, the drum of the ear ; 
h, the vestibule ; i, the Eustachian tube ; k, the tympanum, in which the 
little bones are placed. The Eustachian tube terminates, and the oval 
window opens into the vestibule. 

* In a letter from the venerable Dr. James Thatcher, of Plymouth, the 
following curious fact is related : 

" A gentleman told me that a few days since, as he was passing through 
one of our streets, where there were considerable intervals between the 
houses, a gentleman, totally blind, walking with him, assured him that 
he knew exactly when he was passing a building, by a peculiar sensation 
in his ears, occasioned by a different concussion of the air." 

Why are the cavities large in the lion ? 



168 ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 

In another direction is the minute orifice of a cone- 
shaped pipe, Eustachian tube, that opens with a trumpet- 
like extremity in the mouth, — it being necessary to the 
free vibration of the drum-head that the same quality of 
air that transmits the sonorous pulsations should also 
exist on the opposite side, within the barrel : the use of 
the Eustachian tube, (so called from Eustachius, the dis- 
coverer,) is to admit it. Nothing, therefore, is more com- 
pletely an imitation of the tympanum of the ear than the 
martial drum, which has a little hole in the side, equiva- 
lent to this we are describing, descending to the mouth, 
the nearest point from which atmospheric air could be 
taken, without disarranging or disturbing the functions of 
other organs. By closing the sounding hole of the drum, 
the music is less audible, — sounding, when the air inside 
becomes rarified, like music in a well. The reason is, the 
equal balance of the air is destroyed : such is the object 
and office of the Eustachian tube. Sometimes, in violent 
sneezing, or sudden cough, the patulous mouth gets stop- 
ped for an instant with saliva ; and many readers are 
probably familiar with the sensation of fulness that ensues, 
— giddiness and ringing in the ears, to ' the annihilation 
of accurate auricular perceptions, till the cause is re- 
moved.^ 

There are many existing cases of deafness having their 
origin in some such cause : the pipe finally inflames, and 
becomes permanently sealed. A skilful aurist, under such 
circumstances, will adroitly puncture the drum-head, with 
an instrument purposely constructed, and relieve the 
patient without pain. 

OVAL WINDOW, OR FENESTRA OVALIS. 

Fenestra ovalis means an oval window, covered by one 
of the two little drum-heads. Beyond this, supposing a 
person could pass through, he would arrive in the vesti- 

* Notwithstanding the fine arguments of writers to the contrary, I 
believe that partially deaf persons hear better when the mouth is open ; 
instinctively, it may be observed, such individuals listen with an open 
mouth. The pulsations of sound thus enter the tympanum and set the 
fenestra ovalis vibrating, but very much less forcibly than through the 
external opening in its healthful condition. 

Use of the Eustachian tube ? For what purpose ? 

Does it communicate with the Common cause of deafness ? 
mouth ? Where is the fenestra ovalis ? 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 



169 



bule, or second room. Lower down, but a few lines from 
this, is the second little parchment head, called 



ROUND WINDOW, OR FENESTRA ROTUNDA. 

This is a round window ; were it possible to tear it 
away and creep through the frame, the traveller would 
enter into one of the canals of the cochlea. 

Tis. 74. 




Explanation of Fig: 74. 

In this diagram, the labyrinth and little bones of the ear are magnified 
exceedingly. This is to show the manner in which they are connected, 
and the order in which they are placed. 

a to e, The malleus, about to be described ; a, a long process ; b, a 
shorter one ; c, the handle, attached to the drum-head ; d, the neck ; and 
e, the head of the malleus, like a mallet. 

f to i, The incus ; f its body ; g, its short leg ; i, the point united to 
the stapes. 

k to n, The stapes ; k, its small head, £, the anterior leg, n, the basis 
connected with the membrane which closes the fenestra ovalis. 

o to m, The labyrinth ; o,r, the first turn of the cochlea ; s, t, u, v, the 
second ; w, x, the half or third turn ; y, the foramen rotundum or round 
window ; z, z\ the vestibulum ; A B C D, superior semicircular canals ; 
A, the ampulla; B C, its curvature; D, its union with the inferior or 
posterior canal ; E F G H, inferior canal ; E, its ampulla; F G H, its 
curious curve and its junction with the first ; IKLM, the exterior ca- 
nal; I, the ampulla ; K L, the direction of its curve ; M, its termination 
in the vestibule. 



15 



Is there a round opening? 



170 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 
Fig. 75. 




Explanation of Fig. 75. 

In this, the bony case of the labyrinth has had one half cut away to 
exhibit the interior. 

a to I, The upper part of the cochlea ; a a, the thickness of its external 
shell in a foetus of eight months ; 6, c, d, the lamina spiralis ; b, c, scala 
vestibuli ; e,-f, g, h, i, the scala tympani. Here is seen the bony lamina 
spiralis ; b, its origin ; cl, its termination in a little hook, termed hamulus ; 
k % the opening of the infundibulum, where the scalae communicate ; I, the 
opening of the aqueduct, or drain of the fluids from the cochlea. 

m to g, The under half of the vesti-bulum ; ?7i, the thickness of its 
case in the foetus ; ?7, the fovea or round pit ; o, an oval pit ; p, a ridge 
between them ; <?, opening of the aquaeductus vestibuli. 

r -> S ) ^? l> The canals divided ; r, the thickness of their case in the 
infant ; g, the posterior ; /, exterior semicircular canal ; 1, opening of the 
big end of the posterior canal ; 2, opening of the large end of the supe- 
rior ; 3, the opening common to their united tubes ; 4, the larger end ; 
5, the contracted opening of the external canal. 

LITTLE BONES OF THE EAR, OR OSS1CULA AUDITUS. 

Perhaps there is no insulated portion of an animal that 
more clearly and satisfactorily evinces superhuman de- 
sign, than the figure and articulation of the four ear bones, 
which we shall now endeavor to describe. The technical 
phrase ossicula auditus, in the Latin, implies little bones 



How many bones concerned in the sense of hearing ? 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 



171 



of hearing. They are by far the smallest in the body. 
The first, in the order of their distribution, is the malleus 
or mallet, having a faint resemblance to that instrument, 
inasmuch as there is a long handle joined to a round 
knob. Secondly, the incus, from its resemblance to an 
anvil : os orbiculare or round bone, the least in size that 
has ever been discovered, benig in man considerably 
smaller than a mustard-seed. And, lastly, the stapes, or 
stirrup, almost a miniature fac simile of a saddle stirrup. 
Birds have but two of these, of which the malleus is most 
developed. Turtles have but one, the malleus ; and rep- 
tiles, as far as personal dissection warrants, have but two. 
In these classes there is a departure in form from those 
we are contemplating in our own species. 

Fig. 76. 

Explanation of Fig. 
76. 
Here is presented a 
magnified view of the 
ear bones. The os or- 
biculare, or round bone, 
is not represented, being 
considered by some as 
only an appendage of 
the malleus. 

The malleus known 
by its long arms ; a, &, 
c, d, e, mark the same 
points as in Fig. 74. 
The incus, resembling 
a molar tooth, having 
shorter arms, is in the 
same position as in Fig- 
ure 74 ; the letters have the same reference. The star points out the 
articulating surface for the malleus. 

Any person, from the foregoing remarks, will recognise the stapes, by 
its shape, a b, its head ; c, the neck ; d, anterior crus ; e, the second ; f % 
the basis. 

The fourth drawing represents another view of the stapes, seen from 
above, a, its cartilage ; 6, anterior ; c, posterior ; d, the basis. 

As these bones are placed in the drum-barrel, one 
joined to the extremity of the other, they make a com- 
pound lever, the object of which is to have the freest and 
longest extent of motion in a little space. Unlike the 
military drum, which is continually referred to on account 
of familiar illustration, the sticks of this are fixed on the 
inside, connected to little cords, which jerk them down 




Give their names. 



172 ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 

with a sort of conscious independence, whenever there is 
the least noise, to give the brain intelligence, as it were, 
of what is going on without.^ 



Fig. 77. 



if 



Explanation of Fig. 77. 
In this drawing the little bones are represented of 
their natural size, with the exception of the last one, 
which is magnified. 



There is some resemblance in the motion to be effected 
by this chain of bones to the up and down motion of the 
hand at the extremity of the arm, viz. carrying one end 
of the lever through considerable space, while the other, 
to which the power is applied, has no perceptible motion. 

Small as the ossicula auditus are, the first and last of 
the series have muscles, called tensors, laxators, &c, 
which are susceptible of demonstration. Bough points 
and projections on the inside of the tympanum give at- 
tachment both to the muscles and the bones themselves. 
Even these minute points the old anatomists have bela- 
bored with what they supposed significant names. One 
end of the malleus, the handle, is connected with the 
inside of the membrana tympani ; the other is fitted into 
a socket of the incus, and that articulated with the or- 

* There are some diseases familiar to medical gentlemen, beside local 
affections of the ear, which fix upon the bones about the face. Under 
such circumstances, a sanious discharge washes these little bones entirely 
away. Nothing is more certain than the fact, that the three first bones 
may be corroded and floated from their connexions : indeed, extracted 
with forceps, and the patient hear, to all intents and purposes, nearly 
if not quite as well as he did before. Thus the membrane, (drum- head) 
and three out of four bones are unnecessary, it seems, in the auditory 
apparatus of man. Stripped thus, it falls below the frog's, being defi- 
cient in an external covering or vibrating membrane. The vibrations, in 
this case, act directly on the foot piece of the stapes, which is broad 
enough to offer resistance to the vibrating air. Being connected with the 
membrane of the fenestra ovalis, it produces a motion in it, which is pro- 
pagated to the fluid beyond, and thus the nerve becomes agitated. If the 
stapes could be detached without rupturing the membrane of the fenestra 
ovalis, then hearing could be effected independent of the little bones. 
Their use is merely to strengthen the vibrations within, just in the pro- 
portion that they nave a tendency to become faint as the distance in- 
creases whence they had their origin. 

Upon what principle do they act Have these little bones any muscies 
within the tympanum ? attached to them ? 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 173 

biculare or round bone, which stands as a medium of 
connexion between the two. 

Such is the mechanical adaptation of one of these bones 
to the other, that if the extreme point of the handle of the 
malleus be moved the millionth or ten millionth part of 
an inch, by the vibrations of the drum-head, it will so 
operate on the incus and that on the stapes, through the 
intervention of the orbiculare, that the last bone will move 
through treble the space, by a single sonorous pulsation 
of the malleus, in the same period of time. In fact, the 
stirrup, in plain language, is exactly fitted into the oval 
window, like the box of a pump, so that a motion given to 
the handle of the malleus operates on the chain, to effect 
the stapes, that it may work backward and forward, with 
the same motion and on the same principle of the work- 
ing of the piston of a syringe. To hear, it is necessary 
that the stapes, attached to the parchment window, should 
move to and fro. 

ENTRY, OR VESTIBULE. 

This word implies an entry, being an intermediate 
apartment between the tympanum and cochlea. In the 
sense in which it is now received, it is a hall of the edi- 
fice beyond, from which doors are opening into various 
winding passages. Its length and diameter are not far 
from those of a grain of wheat ; as in a preceding para- 
graph, if we suppose an individual has torn away the 
stapes, stretched across the oval window, and then cut 
away the latter, to wend his way into the vestibule, he 
will find it a long but narrow room.^ 

On one side he will discover three holes, and on the 
opposite only two, which are the openings or commu- 
nication of the semicircular canals with the vestibule. 

* If, by any circumstance, the membrane of the oval window or fenestra 
oralis is ruptured, the fluid of the labyrinth will certainly escape. This 
constitutes incurable deafness. No operation, no prescription can avail, 
as the acoustic nerve cannot be acted upon in any other way than through 
the agitation of the fluid which surrounds it. Dr. Darwin was of opinion 
that if a deaf person dreamed of hearing, the internal parts, essential to 
the function, were unimpaired. The same remark is applicable to the 
blind. I have invariably found that the incurably deaf, as well as incura- 
bly blind, never dream of hearing or seeing.' This clearly shows a 
destruction of the sense, inasmuch as the imagination cannot rouse a 
single vestige of their former activity. 

Where is the vestibule, in relation How many cochleal orifices within 
to the other cavities ? the vestibule ? 

15^ 



174 ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 

Within this vestibule are two sacs, water tight, containing 
a clear fluid. Though there is no communication be- 
tween them, the quality of the fluids distending them is 
alike. One is considerably larger than the other, and both 
together would not equal in bulk two good sized pin- 
heads. The one of the greatest magnitude is called the 
alveus communis , or the union of rivers, from the circum- 
stance that the canals were thought to resemble streams 
of water, having a free communication with the water in 
the reservoir. Sacculus cochlea, the lesser one, though 
separated from the other by the thickness of its own and 
the other's wall, is eked out into a long gyrating tube, 
that traverses the cochlea. 

This large sac, alveus communis, is the elementary one 
found in polypi ; and it is this that is built upon from one 
species to another, till perfected in the complicated ma- 
chinery of the human ear. 

Besides the sacs themselves, the porch is lined with a 
membrane of exquisite texture, in which is conducted the 
vessels that administer the blood to the contained reser- 
voirs, and also secrete their contained fluid, aqua laby- 
rinthi, or water of the labyrinth. 

SEMICIRCULAR CANALS. 

These are properly a prolongation of the vestibule ; 
the design evidently being to furnish surface for expand- 
ing the auditory nerve, without carrying it onward to- 
wards organs that would be affected by their presence. 
No way could be devised more strictly economical than 
to have a circular or semicircular canal, curving in a 
little space, as in a very small solid bit of bone. Precisely 
on this plan are these canals. They are three in number. 
Let it be remembered in this place that the tympanum, 
including the vestibule, little bones and semicircular 
canals, exclusively make up the ear of fishes and reptiles; 
neither of these tribes having an external ear, nor the 
cochlea, which still remains to be elucidated. 

So much is necessary to the perception of simple 
sounds. The cartilaginous fishes (sharks, eels, &c.) have 
the canals, and are therefore capable of judging of the 

Are there sacs of fluid in this apart- Have other animals the same or- 

ment ? ganization in this respect ? 

How manv semicircular canals 7 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 175 

direction and condition of different sounds.^ The Chi- 
nese drive fish from the crevices of rocks to the angling 
ground by beating a gong. Pike and carp, reared in 
artificially stocked ponds, both in Poland and France, 
have been taught to come to a particular spot to feed, at 
the ringing of a bell. Serpents, abundant evidence sub- 
stantiates, are exceedingly excited by the lively strains of 
music, coiling themselves into a variety of folds, and 
giving a tremulous vibration to the tail, which long 
experience proves to be the result of a pleasurable sensa- 
tion, and not one of displeasure, rage or pain. 

Two of these canals, as they wind towards the side of 
the vestibule, coalesce ; and when they perforate the wall, 
have only one orifice in common. The third enters 
alone, and this explains the two holes seen on one side of 
the vestibule ; on the opposite side are three, being the 
orifices of the same three canals, opening singly. When 
the semicircular canals are closely examined, they are 
observed to be larger at one extremity, near the walls of 
the vestibule, than at the other ; the bulbs or bulges are 
termed ampullulce, or bottle-shaped. A crook-neck squash 
is an exact, though greatly magnified representation of 
any one of the semicircular canals. The diameter of the 

* Spinous fishes, those possessing firm cranial bones, have no external 
opening— m eatus extemus. 

A singular malformation in relation to the ear has been discovered 
recently, in a young man in Vermont, a printer. There are no orifices 
from the external leading to the internal organ. Yet he hears tolerably 
well. Various theories have been advanced in explanation of this phe- 
nomenon. Some have suggested that the portio dura, which accompanies 
the acoustic nerve, and branches about on the side of the face, transmits 
the sonorous vibrations of the air. One thing is certain, viz. that, 
although the external part of the auditory apparatus is imperfect, the 
labyrinth is perfectly developed. Were it not so, he would not hear. It 
is most philosophical to suppose that sounds or aerial undulations are 
propagated and communicated to the auditory nerve by the concussion 
which the whole skull receives. Fishes, as noticed in the text, hear 
distinctly, without any external opening. Sound to them is the effect 
of a tremor produced in the bones of the cranium, extending to the acous- 
tic region, which agitates the nerve. If this is not the case with this 
printer, then we must suppose the tympanum exists, and that sound is 
introduced there through the Eustachian tube, a canal extending from 
the back part of the mouth. So seldom is it that any of the organs of 
sense are malformed, that this is. considered an extraordinary instance. 

A native of the Sandwich Islands was seen by an American gentleman, 
who had four external ears, two on each side, one being just above 
the other. Whether there were four orifices, he did not ascertain. 

What is the appearance of the ex- What diameter have they? 
tremities of the canals ? 



176 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 



circle, of which they are a little more than two thirds of a 
segment, varies but little from one quarter of an inch in 
man : but the calibre of the canals themselves will scarce- 
ly admit the introduction of a fine bristle. A probable 
reason for the swelling out of the ampullulae will be given 
when discoursing particularly of the nerve. 

Fig. 78. 




Explanation of Fig. 78. 

In this enlarged diagram of the labyrinth, wnich is laid open, the. soft 
parts are seen. Youn^ gentlemen pursuing medical studies will derive 
the most profit from this plan. 

a to e, The lamina spiralis viewed from above. The distribution of 
the nerve will not be easily distinguished, I fear ; a, a, a, the first turn ; 
b, 6, second turn ; c, d, e, the third turn of the lamina ; d, e, where the 
scalse communicate. 

Comparetti has described the lamina to consist of four different sub- 
stances, or zones; 1, the bony zone; 2, coriaceous; 3, vesicula ; 4, the 
membranous zone. 

./, sacculus spkericus ; g, space between that and the alveus commu- 
nis ; h, alveus communis; I fc i 3, posterior canal; 1 i, its ampulla; k, 
the nerve expanded over it ; 2 I m, the superior canal ; /, the ampullulae ; 
4 n 5, the exterior canal, communicating at both ends with the alveus 
communis. 

Within these bony tubes are membranous ones, pro- 
longations of the sacs found in the vestibule; but they 
are not in contact with the walls : on the contrary, they 
" are kept from them by the interposition of a fluid, whose 
equal pressure keeps them exactly in the centre. Fur- 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 177 

ther to show the exceedingly minute structure of this 
accurately operating instrument, it is necessary to remem- 
ber that the membranous tube is also distended with a 
transparent watery liquor. Still smaller canals, running 
through the temporal bone in which the internal ear is 
located, pour in and discharge the old fluid, as an unceas- 
ing process. 

SNAIL-SHELL, OR COCHLEA. 

The third and last anatomicaL division of the internal 
ear is the cochlea, or snail-shell. Recollecting how the 
canal of a snail-shell winds about a central pillar, will 
enable the reader to understand the text. In the snail- 
shell of the ear, however, there are two canals, side by 
side, which wind twice and a half round a central pillar, 
which is hollow, and termed modiolus. At the apex, the 
two canals open in one common cavity, but a thin slip of 
bone caps over both openings, as well as over the top of 
the hollow end of the pillar, like a parasol. This is the 
cupola, in technical language. The upper end of the 
hollow pillar is broad, but becoming narrower, the lower 
is denominated the infundibulum, or tunnel-shaped ex- 
tremity. 

After leaving the inner extremity of the vestibule, com- 
mences one canal of the cochlea, which becomes smaller 
and smaller, till it terminates under the cupola. Now, 
supposing the reader were travelling in this canal, he 
could step from the termination of the one we are describ- 
ing, over the broad opening of the modiolus, shaded above 
by the cupola, into the mouth of the second canal. By 
following its turns, increasing in diameter as he proceeds, 
till he has gone twice and a half round the modiolus, he 
would arrive at the fenestra rotunda, or round window. 
This being like parchment, semi-transparent, he could 
look into the tympanum, where the little bones are lodged. 

Thus it is that one canal is in reality a prolongation 
of the vestibule, and the other opens into the tympanum. 
A fluid fills the canals, which is prevented from escaping 
by the oval window, in the vestibule, in one direction, 
and by the round one at the other. In the centre of this 
liquor, floating, are the finely organized threads of the 
acoustic nerve. 

Where is the cochlea ? structure ? 

What are the peculiarities of its 




178 ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 

Those animals having the power of combining sounds 
to produce song, have a cochlea, and generally a corres- 
ponding vocal apparatus. Birds have a cochlea, but it 
consists only of two tapering tubes, united at one extremi- 
ty, but diverging at the other, as in man. A musical 
ear was once thought to depend exclusively on a cochlea; 
but common sense teaches us, and the fact is notorious, 
that singers, as well as those who cannot sing, have ears 
constructed precisely alike ; and therefore the whole 
mystery depends on the peculiar development of the 
brain. 

Explanations of Fig. 79. 

Part of the last, as well as the following diagram, 
which has a sort of shell-like turn, is denominated the 
cochlea. 

The object of this drawing is to show the soft con- 
tents of the labyrinth, of their natural size and in their 
natural situation. AH the eminences of the temporal 
bone have been broken away, 
a, a, the spiral plate of the cochlea; b, the round sac, or sac of the 
cochlea ; c, alveus communis ; g } the posterior ; k, the superior, and Z, 
the exterior semicircular canal. 

THE HEARING OR AUDITORY NERVE. 

There is no part of the intricate organ we have been 
explaining more difficult to display and to fully under- 
stand, in all its relations, than the nerve of hearing ; and 
we shall therefore avoid all laborious descriptions, and 
merely generalize. 

The auditory nerve is the seventh, — a pair precisely 
alike on the two sides of the brain ; not much larger than 
sewing threads. It enters the cochlea first through a 
sieve-like orifice, on one side of a bone that projects from 
the inside of the skull towards the brain. This depres- 
sion where the nerve enters, towards the external ear, is 
the meatus auditorius internus. It assumes a variety of 
shapes in distributing itself in the various tubes, sacs, 
canals and pits we have been exhibiting. At some points, 
many delicate threads are discoverable, side by side ; at 
others, fibres are seen floating in the surrounding fluid, 
from the main trunk; at others, the nerve assumes the 
form of a flocculent paste, and at others, a woolly texture. 

How is it constructed in birds ? Describe the auditory nerve. 

Is there a fluid in the canals ? 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 179 

The whole, distributed thus elaborately, constitutes the 
nerve of hearing. 

The sense of hearing is not confined, in a healthful 
condition of the organ, to any one particular part or 
point : the sensation is perceived in the whole at the 
same instant of time. It has been recently demonstrated 
that the human ear is so extremely sensible, as to be 
capable of appreciating sounds which arise from about 

Fig. 80. 




Explanations of Fig. 80. 

An enlarged view of the labyrinth laid open. 

a, 6, c, the cochlea. To exhibit the zona mollis, the outside or bony 
case is removed. 

d, e, f t The vestibulum. 

g to q, The semicircular canals. 

g, h, i, The posterior ; k, I, m, the superior ; o, p, q, the exterior canal. 

1,2, 3, The lamina spiralis, seen on its under surface ; 3, the two sacs 
so often mentioned in this work, in the vestibule, which, viewed in this 
plan, look like one. 

t, u, The membranous posterior canal. 

v, w, x, The superior membranous canal, uniting with the last, at x, 
y, r, the exterior membranous canal. 

This diagram exhibits the distribution of the acoustic nerve in the 
labjTinth ; the large branch goes to the cochlea, and the three others, 
smaller, to the vestibule, and three semicircular canals. 

24,000 vibrations in a second ; and, consequently, that it 
can hear a sound which lasts only the 24,000th part of a 
second. The question now may arise, why was it neces- 

In what division of the internal ear is the sense of sound developed ? 



180 ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 

sary to construct such an intricate machine, if one part 
of it has not a higher office to sustain than another ? 

Economy was the object: — to pack as much as possible 
in the smallest space, is observable in all animal mechan- 
ism. No other kind of arrangement of cells in the small 
block of bone in which these are found, would or could 
have afforded so much surface to spread out such an 
extent of nerve. This is the probable reason for semi- 
circular canals, the cochlea and their appendages. 

MUSICAL EAR. 

No question oftener arises, on surveying the auditory 
apparatus, than this, viz. — why has one person an ear for 
music, when another, whose internal organ is as beautiful- 
ly and nicely constructed, is totally unable to appreciate 
harmonious sounds ? The difficulty, probably, is in the 
peculiar development of some portion of the brain, and 
therefore does not arise in consequence of a defect in the 
original conformation of the ear. It obviously requires 
as delicate auricular perception to appreciate and imitate 
articulate sounds, as it does to sing in concert. It is by 
no means uncommon for an individual to cultivate the 
highest departments of instrumental music, and at the 
same time be wholly unable to sing. This is entirely 
owing to some defect of the vocal organs. A perfect or- 
ganization of both, in the same individual, united to that 
inscrutable condition of the brain which gives the taste 
for music, constitutes the most gifted performer, and such 
as Handel, Mozart, Beethoven, Mad. Catalan!, Garcia, the 
wonderful Paganini, and a few others, have exhibited to 
the highest degree of human perfection. 

Another circumstance in relation to the musical ear, is 
the following: some persons have the ear as well as the 
taste for music, and yet find it impossible to accompany 
others in a performance. This arises, probably, in most 
cases, in consequence of a non-agreement in the tension 
of the drum-heads of the two ears, or a want of corres- 
pondence in the calibre of the internal tubes ; hence one 
ear perceives sounds to be half a tone above or below the 
other. The same occurs in respect to the focal distance, 

How is the musical ear different from the non-musical ? 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 181 

oftentimes, of the eyes. Time rarely corrects the former, 
though in the latter it finally modifies the aberration.^ 

DISEASES OF THE EAR. 

A ringing in the ear is an indication of a diseased 
state of the nerve ; generally it arises from some slight 
inflammation. The beating of adjacent arteries, in con- 
sequence of inflammation in the throat, may excite the 
nerve, which being incapable of transmitting any sensa- 
tion but that of sound, the ringing is an imperfect sensa- 
tion. The eye, when the optic nerve is encroached upon 
by inflammation of surrounding parts, or the pressure of 
a growing tumor, transmits the sensation of light, though 
the individual may be in total darkness. Affections of the 
brain itself may remotely excite a morbid action in many 
or all the nerves of sense. Hence, persons dying of acute 
inflammatory diseases, complain of hearing loud and 
strange noises, although the apartment is perfectly still. 

EAR-ACHE. 

Very many individuals are subject to excruciating pain 
in the internal ear, on taking the slightest cold, or from 
exposing themselves to a humid atmosphere ; and others 
seem to inherit the disease, which no application can 
remove. A peculiar irritability of the nerve that crosses 
the drum-head (corda tympani) may be one cause ; the 
vascular covering of which, suffering from a chronic 
inflammation, compresses the nerve, and thus produces 
almost intolerable agony. Defending the external open- 
ing with cotton wool, or lint, is a common and rational 
defence ; but the introduction of oils, spirits and the like, 
is often attended with pernicious consequences. Gene- 
rally such cases end in deafness. Nature, to save the 
rest of the machine from becoming disordered, by its 
sympathy with a diseased member, finally destroys it, as 
firemen demolish contiguous buildings, to save a town, 

* Philosophers of antiquity were more conversant with the doctrine 
of sounds tnan the moderns. The remarkable cavern, hewn in a solid 
rock by a celebrated tyrant, and called Dionysius* ear, is said to have 
been an exact model of the windings of the human ear. Vitruvius gives 
an interesting account of the manner in which the Greeks contrived to 
augment the compass of the voice in theatres, by placing large metal 
vases in different parts of those edifices. 

16 



182 ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 

when they can no longer master a threatening conflagra- 
tion.^ 

PARTIAL DEAFNESS, FROM A COLD. 

Probably, in a majority of cases, partial deafness arises 
from a slight inflammation of the tube opening behind 
the palate. In consequence of this, the balance between 
the air in the tympanum and mouth is destroyed, and the 
regular vibratory function of the membrane is altered. A 
deafness in one ear generally depends on this cause. 
Deafness in fevers is an excellent symptom, and offers 
encouragement in the worst cases, because it is an evi- 
dence of a diminution of the morbid condition of the 
brain. 

PERMANENT DEAFNESS. 

A total deafness implies a destruction of the organ: 
but we apprehend there are only a very few persons in this 
condition. Even in those unfortunate fellow-beings who 
are deaf and dumb, the faculty of hearing, to a certain 
extent, still exists. They hear the report of a cannon, or 
heavy thunder, which act so powerfully on the body as to 
rouse the sleeping energies of the nerve. In fact, the 
tremor is communicated through the bones of the head. 
Fishes of the bony kind have the organ of hearing acted 
upon in the same manner, as the nerve is completely 
cased up in solid bone, without either drum-head or 
external openings. 

* Painful affections of the ear may be induced from habitually picking 
the ears, — a very pernicious practice. In India, where a class of men 
follow the profession of cleansing ears, cutting the nails, &c, though in 
that climate the secretions may be fluid, in greater abundance, and dis- 
charge freely, the plucking 01 the hairs and frequent introduction of 
scraping instruments render the organ irritable, and less accurate in the 
perception of sounds. 

Tumors, ulcerations and other troublesome complaints are brought on 
by picking them. A sudden pressure on the corda tympani, a nerve 
belonging to the face, which crosses the drum-head, by the head of a pin, 
may forever after render it liable to inflame on the slightest exposure. 

Fluids ought not to be poured into the external ear to drown insects 
as the worst consequences may ensue. 

How is temporary deafness pro- destruction of the external ear ? 

duced ? Use of the ear-wax ? 

What causes permanent deafness ? What operations are successful in 
Do deaf persons hear better with re-establishing the sense of hear- 

their mouths open ? ing ? 

Is the sense imperfect, after the 






ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 183 

CONCLUSION. 

None of the organs of sense are more complicated or 
splendidly constructed than the one under consideration. 
The will has it but slightly under its control, and being 
unable " to withdraw itself from impressions" it has the 
curious apparatus of little bones to increase or diminish 
the intensity of impressions, like a regulator between the 
external agent and the nervous cords. Judgment, by the 
combined assistance of the other senses, perfects the 
function of the organ; and ideas without number are 
constantly ushered into being by the sense of hearing. 

By this sense, music is a never-failing source of plea- 
sure, heightened and infinitely modified, according to the 
physical development of the ear, and the discipline and 
education to which it has in modern times been subjected. 
The causes of the pleasure resulting from harmony and 
melody are very far from being satisfactorily explained, 
notwithstanding the sagacious conjectures and repeated 
attempts of the most able metaphysicians, as well as 
physiologists : we know no more of them than we do of 
the causes of the pleasures and pains of all the other 
senses. 



THE EYE. 



No one has been able to explain how or why we see. 
The visual organs are constructed with such exact refer- 
ence to the laws of light, that telescopes and microscopes 
are but imitations and modifications of the apparatus of 
the human eye. There is a difference, however, between 
the animate and inanimate, the most wonderful and as- 
tonishing. The first is a perceiving instrument ; the 
second, a receiving. 

All animals living on land have their eyes very similar 
in structure. 

Is there any method by which it can Are the eyes of land animals organ* 
be demonstrated how we see ob- ized alike ? 
jects ? 



184 ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 

In carnivorous animals, the original principle of vision 
is preserved, but most curiously modified, according to 
their habits and characters. 

Those that live by violence have the power of seeing 
in the dark. 

Fishes, by a further modification of the original appa- 
ratus, probably see distinctly in the darkest night. 

"With another alteration, not unlike changing the dis- 
tances between the lenses of a spy-glass, another family, 
as seals, &c, see alternately in two elements. Still 
further, on the descending scale of creation, insects are 
provided with motionless eyes, giving them the faculty 
of seeing in every possible direction. And, lastly, in 
snails and some kinds of worms, the eyes are fixed at the 
extremity of movable feelers, adapting them to different 
focal distances ; or they can be drawn entirely within 
the head, for safe keeping, when not in use, precisely on 
the principle of care that we draw out the slides of an 
opera glass, and close them up again, when no longer 
needed. 

THE SOCKET IN WHICH THE EYE ROLLS. 

Several thin pieces of bone assist in the formation of 
the orbit, which, in a dry skull, is shaped much like a 
pear, with its large end turned outward. The upper plate 
of bone is arched, having the brain resting on it above, 
and the eyeball moving under it below. Externally, the 
eyes are at considerable distance, but the inner termina- 
tion of the orbits, answering to the small end of the fruit, 
are quite near together. At their points is a ragged hole, 
in each, through which the nerve of vision enters the 
brain. A large quantity of fat is deposited in these 
sockets, between the bones and eyeball, that the latter 
may always move with perfect freedom, and without 
friction, in all directions. After a long sickness, the 

What class of animals can distin- ties of feelers or retractile tubes ? 

guish objects in the dark ? How is the orbit or eye socket con- 
Do any animals see in both air and stituted ? 

water? What organ rests, on a thin plate 
How, having motionless optics, of bone directly above the eye ? 

are those possessing them ena- Where does the nerve of vision 

bled to perceive objects ? enter the orbit ? 

What was the apparent design in Why is the socket filled with adi- 

furnishing some of the lower pose substance 7 

orders' with eyes at the extremj- 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 185 

cushion of fat is absorbed, with that deposited in the 
bones, to sustain the system, which accounts for the sink- 
ing in of the eye. As the person recovers, the stomach 
resumes the task of taking care of the body, the fat is 
deposited again, and the eye becomes prominent as 
before. 

GLOBE OF THE EYE. 

When detached from the surrounding parts, the eye- 
ball does not appear exactly round : it is, in outline, more 
than two thirds of a large sphere, with a portion of a 
lesser globe laid upon it. 

The use of this arrangement is obvious. If the ball 
had been actually round, the compass of vision would 
have been very limited : as it is, the smaller portion, by 
its short curve, protrudes so far beyond the socket, where 
the globe is lodged for safety, that the sphere of vision is 
very much enlarged. 

MUSCLES OF THE EYE. 

To move the ball, muscles were necessary; otherwise, 
animals would be obliged to turn their bodies as often as 
an object was to be seen. Of these, four are straight, 
going from the sides of the ball, to be fastened near the 
hole, at the termination of the bony cavity : their office 
is to hold the eye firmly, in a fixed position, as in steadily 
contemplating a painting. Two others are given, making 
six in the whole, to express, principally, the passions of 
the mind ; they are denominated the oblique^ in conse- 
quence of their oblique movement of the eye. One rolls 
it upward and inward, as in viewing a button midway on 
the forehead; the other, going through a loop, carries the 
globe downward, and is so purely mechanical, that it 
has been the theme of admiration among philosophers in 
all ages. The last action may be shown by looking 
at an object laid on the shoulder. Although these oblique 

What becomes of the fat in case of Explain the principle of having one 

protracted illness ? portion protrude into the field of 

Is the eye a perfect globe ? vision ? 

Why is a portion of a small sphere How is the eye moved in the sock- 
laid upon a large one, as noticed et ? 

in relation to the cornea and ball How many muscles are attached to 

of the eye ? the globe ? 



16* 



* 



186 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 



muscles exist in monkeys and nearly all tribes of quadru- 
peds, they are imperfectly developed; showing most con- 
clusively that they were designed for expressing the 
feelings and passions of man — an ineffable language, 
which all the brute creation have the sagacity to under- 
stand. When one of the four straight muscles is shorter 
than its fellow on the opposite side, it produces the cross- 
eye, or squinting. 

Fig. 81. 




Explanation of Fig. 81. 

This plan exhibits the muscles, viewed obliquely from the upper and 
outer side of the right eye. 

a, The eyeball. 

b, Part of the upper eyelid. 

c, Tunica conjunctiva, or continuation of the common skin of the 
forehead, which turns over the edges of the lids, and is finally carried 
over the front of the globe, but perfectly transparent at this point. 

d, The integuments of the right side of the nose. 
e e, The optic nerve. 

f The four straight muscles, with the levator or raising muscle* of 

* There are persons wholly destitute of this elevating muscle of the 
upper eyelid, who, in looking at an object elevated above the level of 
their eyes, are obliged to carry the head very far back. They have the 
appearance, ordinarily, of being attentively engaged in viewing something 



Have any of these an influence 

upon facial expression ? 
How is squinting, (strabismus,) or, 



as more commonly called, cross- 
eyed, produced ? 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 



187 



the upper eyelid, together with the superior oblique muscle, embracing 
the optic nerve where it enters the orbit. 

g, The levator of the lid drawn aside. 

n, Levator oculi, or superior straight muscle, to roll the ball upward. 

i, Abductor oculi, rolls the ball outward. 

k, Adductor oculi, rolls it towards the nose. 

I, Depressor oculi, rolls the ball downward, towards the cheek. 

?7i, The superior oblique muscle passing through the loop at n. 

7i, Called the trochlea, or pulley, but, in fact, a simple loop. 

o, Insertion of the superior oblique muscle in the eyeball. 

p, The inferior oblique muscle, taking its rise from a bone. 

q, The insertion of the tendon of the inferior oblique muscle in the 
first coat of the ball. 



COATS OF THE EYE. 



Such is the mechanical arrangement of the different 
€oats or coverings of the eye, answering in use to the 
brass tubes of a spy-glass, that one is fitted within the 
other, like a nest of boxes : they are three in number. 



Explanation of Fig. 82. 

This is a plau of the coats, or, as 
they are sometimes termed, tunics. 

Reference should be made to this 
after reading the text. The natural 
figure of the eye, in outline, is pre- 
served. 

a, The sclerotic, or first hard tu- 
nic. 

b, The choroid, or fleecy tunic. 

c, The retina, or third and inmost 
tunic, which is an expansion of the 
optic nerve g, the certain seat of vi- 
sion. 

d, The cornea, or prominent, transparent circle, over which the lids 
close in winking. 

e, The crystalline lens, or little magnifying glass of the eye, about a 
quarter of an inch in diameter. 

f, Is the space filled by one of the fluids of the eye, and called the 
anterior chamber. 

g, The stump of the optic nerve, which is prolonged into the substance 
of the brain. 

1st. The first is the sclerotic^ coat, thick, firm, and 
possessing but little sensibility. Its hardness gives 

at their feet. I knew two sisters who were wholly without the levator 
muscles, and, what was still more remarkable, neither of them could pos- 
sibly bend the back or neck. It was the opinion of medical men that the 
spinal column in both was a solid, bony pillar, a perfect ossification of 
the twenty-four blocks of which the spme is composed having taken 
place soon after birth. 

* Sclerotic, from a Greek word meaning hard. 




How many coats has the eye ? 
What is the external white one 



called ? 



188 ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 

security to the delicate membranes beyond ; affords 
attachment for the muscles ; and by its elasticity equally 
distends the ball, that none of the humors may suffer 
from pressure. Happily the hard coat is very rarely 
diseased. Fishes have a sclerotic coat strictly hard, being 
either cartilaginous or firm bone, graduated in this respect 
according to the depth to which they descend in search 
of food. Through this coat, in what is called the white 
of the eye, the oculist plunges a needle to cure some 
kinds of blindness.^ 

2d. Choroid t is the name of the second coat, having 
a dark red color, and apparently slightly connected with 
the first. By carefully cutting off the sclerotic from a 
bullock's eye, with scissors, the choroid will be beautifully 
exhibited, sustaining the humors. Minute dissection, 
under a microscope, shows that this tunic is a complete 
web of arteries and veins ; hence its reddish hue. Be- 
tween this and the sclerotic, fine silvery threads are seen, 
which hold a control over the iris, yet to be described, 
determining by their influence how much or how little 
light may safely be admitted into the eye. The inside of 
this membrane resembles closely woven wailed cloth, 
having a fleecy nap, similar to velvet, called tapetum.t 
This tapetum is particularly interesting in a philosophical 
point of view, as on its shade of color, in a great measure, 
as will be more fully explained in the sequel, depends 
the power of seeing in the dark. 

* The eye of the great man-eating or white shark appears like a bony 
shell, being three and four and a half inches in diameter, according to 
the dimensions of the fish. When young, the sclerotica or bony box is 
in two pieces, which afterwards unite by a suture. In the horse-mack- 
erel, the sclerotic coat is also bone, but elongated into a sort of tube about 
the entrance of the optic nerve. In this there is a deep cavity for the 
lodgment of some apparatus belonging to the organ, not at all under- 
stood. It is highly probable that it has some influence on vision in deep 
water, in those unexplored regions of the sea where man cannot go, ana 
where scarcely any other than the horse-mackerel is fitted to exist. 

The sclerotica of the owl's eye is supported by bony ribs, like those in 
an umbrella, most beautifully arranged. 

t Choroides, like a lamb-skin, fleecy. 

t Tapetum, resembling cloth, called tapestry. 

Why has it this name ? Name the second coat. 

Has it much sensibility ? Can it be exhibited ? 

Is it liable to become diseased ? What is the process ? 

What is the character of this tunic How does it appear to be coa- 

in fishes ? structed ? 

How should you know it by exa- What is the fleecy nap called ? 

mining the living eye ? 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 



189 



3d. Retina,* so called from its resemblance to a net, 
completes the number, being the innermost and last. Its 
color is that of gum arabic, or ground glass. Nothing can 
be more delicate, being too tender to bear its own weight. 
In fact, it is the expansion of the optic nerve, the imme- 
diate seat of vision. To see it well, an eye should be 
taken to pieces in a tumbler of water. 

Fig. 83. 

Explanation of Fig. 83. 
This represents a dissection of a 
human eye, the organ being repre- 
sented of the proper size. 
a, The optic nerve. 
b b, The sclerotic coat cut and turn- 
ed outward. 

c, A circular portion of the scleroti- 
ca, being a rim of the white of the eye, 
cut and turned upward, having in its 
embrace the cornea. 

d, The cornea. 
e e, One half the iris, in its place, 

the other half being removed. 

f. The pupil, soon to be described, 
with the crystalline lens in its place. 

g, The ciliary circle, or second vertical partition, within the eye, be- 
hind the iris. 

h h, Choroid coat. 

i, The ciliary processes, or ruffle-like plaits of the ciliary circle, yet to 
be explained. A small portion of the iris is cut away to snow them. 

k, A portion of the iris cut and turned back. 

Z, The floating points of the ciliary processes, also turned back. 

m, The middle smooth part of the retina, seen by cutting a hole 
through the choroid coat. 

n, The roots of the ciliary processes, to which the black paint, secreted 
by the tapetum or inner surface of the choroides, adheres. 

o, The ciliary processes inserted into the sac which contains the crys- 
talline lens. 




THE CORNEA. 

Anteriorly, that clear, shining wall, resembling a watch 
crystal, which furnishes the membranous box, is called 
the cornea. Simple as this thin crystal appears, it is 
infinitely curious in structure. It is made of thin pellu- 
cid plates, one over another, held together by a spongy 

* Retina, a net. 



Of what use is the tapetum in the 
economy of the eye ? 

The name of the third coat ? 

What is it supposed to be the ex- 
panded extremity of? 



Were you wishing to demonstrate 
its delicate structure, how would 
you do it ? 

Point out the cornea, 



190 ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 

elastic substance. By maceration in water a few hours, 
the sponge will absorb it to such a degree, that the plates 
may be distinctly felt to slide upon each other, between 
the thumb and finger. 

Little glands, like bags of oil, only to be seen by the 
most powerful microscope, are lodged under the first 
plate, which are continually oozing out their contents 
upon the surface, which gives the sparkling brilliancy to 
this part of the eye. As death approaches, this fluid 
forms a pellicle, like a dark cloud, over the lower portion 
of the cornea. This formation is taken to be a sure indi- 
cation of approaching dissolution. See Fig. 82, letter d, 
and Fig. 83, letters c and d, for representation of the 
cornea. 



IRIS. 

By looking into a person's eye, there seems to be a 
vertical partition, either black, blue, or hazel, as the case 
may be, which prevents us from looking into the regions 
beyond, having a round hole in its centre. This is the 
iris, while its central orifice is denominated the pupil. 
How the diameter of this hole is enlarged or diminished, 
has never been explained satisfactorily. One fact, how- 
ever, is certain, that the pupil is large or small, according 
to the quantity of light that may be necessary to the for- 
mation of a distinct picture of the object seen, and this 
change is effected without our being conscious of the 
action. 

From the reflection of such rays as are not admitted 
through the pupil, or central hole, we account for much 
of the lively brilliancy of the iris. On its back side it is 
rather fleecy. Over this is spread a black, blue, hazel, or 
tea-colored paint, which gives a permanent color to the 
eye. It has been remarked, that the eyes and hair ordi- 
narily correspond in color. Whenever the iris acts, as, 

How are the several membranes of interior of each other's eyes ? 

which it is composed held in What is the pupil ? 

contact ? Are we conscious of the action of 

Has the external one any thing ex- the iris ? 

tending through it '? Has the iris a coloring matter or 

For what purpose is this oily ex- pigment? 

cretion ? On what does the color of the eye 

Show me the iris. - depen4 7 
What prevents us from viewing the 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 191 

for instance, it does in going from a dark into a light 
room, the pupil is made smaller, acting uniformly in its 
fibres, to keep it circular. On returning to the dark 
apartment, the pupil enlarges again. A knowledge of 
this fact will explain the reason of a painful sensation in 
the eye, caused by a strong and sudden light. As soon 
as the iris has had time to diminish the size of its pupil, 
we can endure the same luminous object with perfect 
comfort. When we leave a well-lighted room, on first 
going into a dark street, every thing appears lurid and 
indistinct. The iris soon begins to enlarge the pupil, to 
admit more light, and when that has been accomplished, 
although in comparative darkness, we recognise objects 
without an effort. Acting independently of the will, its 
duties are like those of a faithful sentinel, always consult- 
ing the safety of the splendid optical instrument confided 
to its care, with reference to its subserviency to the being 
for whose use it was exclusively constructed. Were it 
otherwise, — were it left to our own care, how often it 
would be neglected, and, indeed, totally ruined, solely for 
the want of undivided attention. 

Parrots have a voluntary control over the pupil, open- 
ing and closing it at pleasure. How this is done, or 
why, in the constitution of that bird, it is necessary, we 
cannot determine. Cats, also, appear to have a similar 
power of graduating the quantity of light admitted into 
their eyes, as it suits their own convenience. 

In carnivorous quadrupeds, the pupil is commonly oval 
and oblique, permitting them to look from the bottom to 
the top of a tree without much elevation of the head. 
Graminivorous quadrupeds have an oblong pupil, placed 
horizontally, with respect to the natural position of the 
body. This form gives them the faculty of surveying the 
expanse of a field at once. See Fig. 83, letters e, e, and k ; 
Fig. 84, letters c, c. 

CILIARY PROCESSES. 

Directly behind the iris is a second curtain, having a 

How is the diminution of the pupil the will ? 

effected? Why is the pupil not round in 

Why can we not perceive objects quadrupeds, as a general law? 

readily on going from a lighted Is there a second curtain within 

room into the dark ? the globe ? 
Is the pupil under the influence of 



192 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 



central hole through it, corresponding with that through 
the first curtain, but nearly as large as the whole diameter 
of the lens. All the luminous rays which are converged 
by the convexity of the cornea, which is, in effect, a piano- 
Fig. 84. 




Explanation of Fig. 84. 

This plan presents a longitudinal section of the left eye and orbit. 

a, The upper eyelid, shut. 

b, The cornea. 

c c, The cut edges of the iris. 

d, The pupil or round hole through the centre of the iris, which, in the 
living eye, resembles a black, highly polished dot. 

ee, The cut edges of the sclerotic and choroid tunics, with the retina, 
before exhibited in the preceding drawings. 

f, The crystalline lens, as it is lodged with reference to other parts. 

g g, The ciliary processes continued from the choroid coat. The plaits 
are here distinctly seen. 

h, The optic nerve, running from the brain, through the bones, to the 
globe of the eye, apparently closely embraced by the straight muscles. 

i, The levator muscle that raises the upper eyelid. 

k, The upper straight muscle of the eye. 

I, Inferior straight muscle, its antagonist, on the under side of the ball, 
called depressor oculi. 

m, A section of the inferior oblique muscle, used in rolling the eye 
upward and inward, as in looking at a button laid above the root of the 
nose. The superior oblique, passing through a loop, carries the eye 
downward and outward, as in looking at the top of the shoulder. These 
two muscles, by old writers, were termed rotatores and amatores, in allu- 
sion to their office of rolling the ball in expressing passions. 

n n, A section of the blood-vessels and nerves, with a large quantity 
of fat, surrounding the optic nerve. 

Where is it lodged, in relation to Give the name, and describe it 
the iris ? generally. 






ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 193 

convex lens, cannot enter through the pupil ; many of 
them strike the plane of the iris, and are reflected back, 
as on a looking-glass, without penetrating its substance. 
If any rays were to get through, by such an irregular 
process, it would produce great confusion, by destroying 
the outline and vividness of the image previously made 
on the retina, through the natural opening. To prevent 
such mishaps, the paint on the back of the iris is to absorb 
such rays as are not reflected, and have a tendency there- 
fore to pass onward. Nature, as though fearful that cir- 
cumstances might so alter the condition of the pigment,*- 
as that some light, notwithstanding this precaution, might 
penetrate, has interposed this second veil, solely, it is 
supposed, to stop all wandering rays. 

This ciliary curtain presents three thicknesses, and, 
lastly, has a thick coat of black paint on its back. In 
order to give it treble security, as it regards thickness, it 
is plaited like the folds of a ruffle. There are seventy 
folds in the human eye, of equal width, nicely laid, one 
over the other. A part so highly important cannot be 
overlooked in studying the philosophy of vision. 

HUMORS OF THE EYE. 

By humors, writers mean the fluids which distend the 
eyeball. They are three in number, possessing different 
densities, and varying much in quality, quantity and use. 
Besides fulfilling the first intention, — viz. distension, — 
they are so purely transparent as to offer no obstruction 
to the free passage of light. Those only interested in 
this description as general scholars, by close examination, 
will have a perfect idea of them, and will consequently 
understand the real nature of some of the many causes 
that weaken the power of vision, or ultimately produce a 
total blindness. The gratification afforded by the exa- 
mination of a bullock's eye, tracing the several parts by 

* Pigment, paint. 

Has it an orifice ? Of what service is the pigment on 

Does it open and close, as does the the back of the ciliary processes ? 

pupil? What do you understand by the 

Wnat injury would it do, were rays humors of the eye ? 

of light to be admitted into the How many are there ? 

eye through the walls, as well as Are they of equal density? 

pupils, at the same time ? 
17 



194 ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 

this paper, will be an ample compensation for the labor, 
because it will forever fix on the mind interesting facts, 
and lead the reader, insensibly, to a course of reflections,, 
productive of much intellectual enjoyment. 

AQUEOUS HUMOR. # 

The aqueous humor is the first in the order of demon 
stration, lying directly back of the cornea, so clear, that 
one unacquainted with the existence of it would not 
suspect a fluid there. In volume, it is far less than the 
others. It keeps the cornea prominent, always at the 
same distance from the iris, in the early periods of life. 
The space occupied by the aqueous humor is called the 
anterior chamber of the eye. (See Fig. 82, letter f.) 
Passing freely through the pupil, it also fills an exceed- 
ingly thin apartment, the circumference of the iris, called 
the posterior chamber. Thus it will be comprehended that 
the iris, or, in familiar language, first curtain, is actually 
suspended and floating in a liquor. 

Were it not for such a contrivance, the iris would soon 
become dry and shrivelled, by the intensity of the sun, 
and therefore rendered totally unfit to perform its appro- 
priate office of opening and closing the pupil. The aque- 
ous humor is never suffered to remain long at a time, but, 
on the contrary, is constantly poured in and again drawn 
off by an infinite number of invisible ducts. By being 
stationary, it would become speedily turbid, and finally 
lose its transparency. A knowledge of the rapidity of the 
secretion has been the means of encouraging oculists to 
undertake novel methods of extracting cataracts, a kind 
of dark mote, through the cornea, as the most certain 
mode of restoring sight. Twenty-four hours after draw- 
ing off the aqueous humor, by a puncture, the anterior 
chamber will be full again. 

Old age, characterized by a gradual decay in the vigor 

* Aqueous, like water. 

Where is the place of the aqueous off, what would be the effect on 

humor? the iris ? 

Is it equal in volume to the others ? How frequently is this fluid renew- 

The anterior chamber? ed ? 

Is any thing suspended in this hu- Would any injury accrue to the 

mor? organ if it were not renewed at 

Were the aqeuous humor drawn all? 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 195 

of all the individual organs, shows also its insidious ap- 
proach in the eye. Vessels that have toiled with untiring 
diligence to the meridian of life begin to show a loss 
of energy. Those which have carried the new, pure 
liquid, supply a less quantity in a given time than for- 
merly, while those whose task it was to convey away 
the old stock are dilatory in the performance of their 
work. Hence, from being kept too long in the reservoir, 
in consequence of a tendency to become more turbid, it 
does not allow the light to pass with its former facility to 
the nerve ; elderly persons, therefore, have indistinct 
vision from this cause, similar to looking through a 
smoky atmosphere. Fishes have no aqueous humor at 
all, as it could be of no service in the element in which 
they swim. 

Kept, as the humor is, in its own capsule, it gives other 
advantages to the apparatus of vision : it is a concavo- 
convex glass, absolutely and indispensably requisite in an 
instrument that will produce an image by the same laws 
that govern the eye. A sensible diminution in the quan- 
tity of this fluid is very apparent in people advanced in 
years : the cornea becomes flatter ; the segment of it is 
so altered, that rays of light are no longer converged, as 
in younger days. This, together with corresponding de- 
rangements within the globe, constitutes the long-sighted- 
ness of old age, — mechanically overcome by wearing 
convex spectacles. So gradually are the changes wrought 
by age, that glasses of different focal distances are sought 
from time to time, to keep pace with the progress of 
decay. 

The ingenuity of man is nowhere more curiously dis- 
played than in thus availing himself of his discovery of 
the laws of refraction, in producing artificial lenses to 
gratify his eye, a never-failing source of enjoyment, long 
after nature has begun to draw the blind that will ulti- 
mately close between him and the world forever. 



Have fishes an aqueous humor? How is the long-sightedness of old 

Why not ? age produced ? 

What is the condition of the cornea Do these changes take place sud* 

in age? denly? 



196 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 



CRYSTALLINE LENS 



# 



As magnifying glasses of different refractive powers 
give perfection to optical apparatus, so it is with respect to 
the lenses within the ball. By crystalline lens is simply 
meant a body like a button, resembling pure flint glass, 
somewhat of the shape of a common sun glass, convex on 
both sides. Its posterior convexity is greater than its 
anterior, thereby bringing the rays to a point a little dis- 
tance behind it. Careful investigation shows that this 
lens is made of a series of plates, applied to each other 
like the coats of an onion : the centre is firmer than the 
edges. 

As a whole, it possesses a highly refractive property, 
but in different degrees, according to the thickness of the 
lens, receding from the centre to the circumference. 
Over the whole, to keep it from sliding in any direction, 
that the centre may not get without the axis of vision, is 
an envelope, having connexion with all the coats, where 
they are united on the borders of the cornea, and where 
it joins the white part of the eye. Being equally trans- 
parent with the lens itself, it cannot be conveniently 
exhibited. 

Cataracts, the most frequent cause of blindness, origi- 

Fig. 85. 




Explanations of F%g. 85. 

This plan represents an eye surrounded by its natural appendages, 
with a knife passing through the anterior chamber. A dotted line indi- 
cates the lower edge of the flap, made by cutting off just one half the 
cornea from its attachment with the sclerotica, in order to allow the crys- 
talline lens to escape whenever the knife is withdrawn. 

* Crystalline lens, resembling crystal or glass. 



What is the next humor ? 
Describe its figure. 
What is its office ? 



How is it kept in place ? 
Is its refractive property equal in 
every part ? 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 197 

nate in the lens ; sometimes half way between the centre 
and margin, but ordinarily in the centre. They are either 
a peculiar deposition of opaque or milky matter, entirely 
preventing the ingress of light, or there is an opacity of 
some of the internal layers of plates, equally destructive 
to vision. Many children are born with this affection ; 
and at all ages they are liable to form. To remove 
cataracts by extraction, the operator slides a sharp, thin 
knife, resembling a lancet, through the cornea, from one 
side to the other, cutting one half from its natural attach- 
ment, leaving it in the form of a flap. See Fig. 85. 

As a matter of course, the aqueous humor escapes in a 
twinkling ; at the same moment, the capsule of the lens, 
previously ruptured, designedly, by the point of the knife, 
as it slides along, acts upon the lens by spontaneous con- 
traction, and protrudes it through the wound. Undoubt- 
edly the grasp which the straight muscles have on the 
ball accelerates its escape. 

Thus, in taking away the obstruction to sight, the 
whole lens is extracted. 

To couch, an operation often mentioned, and often per- 
formed, is to thrust a delicate needle through the white 
of the eye, just on its border, till the point reaches the 
lens, which is then depressed into the lower part of the 
eye, below the optic axis, so that light may, by entering 
the pupil, arrive at the nerve. In this last operation, 
fears are always entertained that the lens may rise again 
to its former position, rendering a repetition of the opera- 
tion indispensable. Secondary cataracts sometimes form, 
after couching or extraction, and arise in consequence of 
a thickening and opacity of the capsule, which is left 
behind. Such cases are more alarming in their progress 
than a disease of the lens, as no surgeon is warranted in 
promising even a partial relief. If he attempted to tear 
away the membrane, he might also rend every other 
within the globe. 

A few facts of this kind which have a practical bearing, 
more or less interesting to every person, may lead to 
correct views in relation to some of the diseases which 
are common to this curious organ. 

Where do cataracts occur ? 
17* 



198 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 



Fig. 86. 




Fte. 87. 




Explanation of Fig. 86. 
This is a scheme showing how a 
bad operator, by introducing the 
couching needle too near the cor- 
nea, may rupture the ciliary pro- 
cesses, and actually divide the lens 
in two pieces, without moving it 
from the optic axis. 

A, The vitreous humor. 

B, The lens. 

C C, Ciliary processes, torn by 
the lower part of the needle, there- 
by doings g^reat violence and a per- 
manent injury to the organ. 

D D, The iris. 

E, The anterior chamber of the 
aqueous humor. 



Explanation of Fig. 87. 
This figure represents 
the mode, and, in fact, 
the place into which the 
couching needle is intro- 
duced in the operation 
of couching. 

A, The pupil is seen 
through the transparent 
cornea. 

B, The iris. 



C, The needle, with the handle elevated so as to depress the point. 

D, The lens and point of the needle in outline. This precisely repre- 
sents the position of the lens after couching. 



VITREOUS HUMOR. 

Beyond the two humors we have been describing is 
the third, differing essentially from either of them. In 
volume it far exceeds the others, occupying more than 
two thirds of the whole interior of the ball. Its consist- 
ence is that of the white of an egg, but kept in place by 
its own capsule. When the sac is punctured with a pin, 
it flows out slowly, in consequence of its adhesiveness. 
Like the preceding humors, it is transparent, allowing the 
free passage of light through its substance, and also pos- 
sesses the additional quality of allowing the rays to sepa- 
rate again, as they leave the point at which they were 
converged just back of the lens. Observation proves that 



The name of the third humor ? 
Does it exceed the others in quan- 
tity? 



Is it transparent ? 

Describe ]ts general structure. 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 



199 



the vitreous humor is kept in place by being lodged in 
cells. Perhaps a piece of sponge might give a tolerable 
idea of the cellular structure, admitting it to be as trans- 
parent as the water which it absorbs. On its fore part it 
has a depression, in which the posterior convexity of the 
lens is lodged, as represented in this diagram. Concave, 
therefore, in front, and convex behind, gives another kind 
of optical glass, known as the meniscus, — the crescent, 
faintly resembling the first quarter of the new moon. 

Fig. 88. 




Explanation of Fig". 88. 
One dotted line indicates, in this 
diagram, the aqueous humor; an- 
other the iris, and a third the lens, 
and the fourth the vitreous humor. 
Let it be remembered that all the 
space between the back side of the 
lens and optic nerve is filled com- 

Eletely, with the glairy, vitreous 
umor, the third fluid, and inmost 
of the eye. 



OPTIC NERVE. 

Any person, possessing an ordinary share of curiosity, 
can examine the optic nerve at leisure, in slaughter- 
houses, fish markets, and in fowls. In the human eye, 
or rather extending from the globe to the brain, the optic 
nerve is very much like a cotton cord, somewhat larger 
than a wheat straw, of a mealy whiteness, and not far 
from three quarters of an inch in length. Arising from 
the substance of the brain, it traverses the bony canal till 
it reaches the back of the eyeball ; as soon as it arrives 
in contact, as it were, it is suddenly divided into innu- 
merable filaments, which wend their way into the globe, 
through very minute holes. From a fanciful resemblance 
to a sieve, this spot on the sclerotica is called the cribri- 
form plate. When the threads have emerged within, 
they assume another form, by expanding into a web, con- 
stituting the third or inmost box. Some believe the nerve 



Does it resemble an optical glass 

of any kind ? 
Where does the optic nerve arise ? 



Where terminate ? 
Is this the medium of communica- 
tion between the eye and brain ? 



200 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 



is spread on a thin, unseen membrane, in the form of a 
highly organized nervous paste. Here, on this pulp, 
having considerable range of surface, is the sole seat of 
vision. A vulgar opinion presupposes some exceedingly 
acute nervous point, the exquisite place of vision. No- 
Fig. 89. 




Explanation of Fig. 89. 

In this figure, the cornea is cut away, and the sclerotic dissected back. 
This is a beautiful and easily accomplished dissection. In a bullock's 
eye all these delicate nerves can be readily displayed. A pair of sharp 
pointed scissors and a few pins, to hold parts to a board, are the proper, 
instruments. In schools, ladies could display the whole of this beautiful 
optical apparatus. 

a, The optic nerve. 

o, The sclerotic coat turned back, so as to show the vessels of the 
choroid coat. 

c c, The ciliary nerves, seen piercing the sclerotic coat, and passing 
forward to be distributed to the iris. The iris, so highly organized, is 
not supplied by any nervous influence from the optic, but by the hair-like 
nerves, nere displayed, creeping to its margin between the two exterior 
coats. 

d, A small nerve passing from the same source to the same termina- 
tion, but giving off no visible branches. 

ee, Two vence vorticosce, or whirling veins, so denominated because 
they seem to fall into shapes resembling falling jets of water ; these re- 
turn the blood from the eye, sent in by its central and other arteries. 

f, A point of the sclerotic, through which the trunk of one of the veins 
has passed. 

g } A lesser vein. 

h, The circular point of union, where all the coats of the eye, together 
with the cornea and iris, seem to be glued firmly together. 

L The iris. 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 201 

k y The straight fibres of the iris. 

I, A circle of fibres or vessels, which divide the iris into the larger 
circle k, and the lesser one m. 
m. This letter points to the lesser circle of the iris. 
n, The fibres of the lesser circle. 
o, The pupil. 

thing, however, is more absurd ; vision includes con- 
siderable surface. In the centre of the substance of the 
nerve, an artery penetrates the eye, accompanying the 
filaments, to nourish the humors. When the cornea has 
been cut away, and the iris detached, this vessel may be 
distinguished, of a bright scarlet, spreading its hair-like 
branches about, like the limbs of a tree. The nerves 
which give sensation to the eye, connecting it with the 
system, may be noticed, as previously remarked, lying 
between the two first coats. The optic nerve conveys to 
the mind the sensation of the existence of things, as per- 
ceived by the eye, while the commands of the same mind 
are conveyed to the organ by these little threads of 
nerves, so insignificant as to be often overlooked in a 
dissection made purposely for them.^ 

PIGMENTUM NIGRUM. t 

Lastly, to complete the internal structure, and fit it for 
the performance of its destined office, the inside surface 
of the second coat, choroides, is thoroughly painted black. 
In the order of explanation, this paint is just behind the 
retina. When the humors have been taken out, the pig- 

* Some extraordinary cases of clairvoyance are recorded in the Boston 
Medical and Surgical Journal. Miss Rider, of Springfield, could play 
games of chance perfectly blindfolded and Mrs. Carr, at Stanstead, 
Lower Canada, in a recumbent position, being in a dark room, saw per- 
sons in an adjoining apartment distinctly, described their dresses, and 
even told the time by the watches in their pockets. A female in "Ox- 
bridge, more recently, laboring under a similar disease with which the 
others were affected, not only saw things as they did through thick 
walls, but her vision became both microscopic and telescopic. She was 
disgusted and shocked at the monsters she saw in various fluids, and 
charmed with the wonders of the distant firmament. M. Poyen, in the 
course of his researches on animal magnetism, has recorded similar facts, 
which still remain unaccounted for. 

t Pigmentum nigrum, black paint. 

Is there a blood-vessel inclosed by pends ? 

the optic nerve ? Does the optic nerve convey any 

Of what utility is it within the eye ? sensation to the mind, other than 

Where are the ciliary nerves lod§[- that produced by the impression 

ed, on which the general sensibi- of lignt ? 

lity of the eye, as an organ, de- Where is the pigment found ? 



202 ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 

merit is readily examined. The use of it is very obvious ; 
viz., to absorb any aberrating or unnecessary rays of light, 
which would confuse the vision, or destroy the intensity 
of the impression on the expanded retina, or to suffocate 
them entirely. 

SKIN OF THE EYE, OR TUNICA CONJUNCTIVA. 

Behind, the eye, by its long cord of optic nerve, seems 
to rest on one extremity of an axle : in front, the skin, 
passing over the eye, as it comes down from the forehead, 
to join the cheek, is the other. 

To comprehend clearly the manner in which the eye 
is fastened before, observe how the skin turns over the 
edge of the lid, going about three quarters of an inch 
back, striking the ball, to which it is made fast, then folded 
back upon itself, adhering to the whole anterior surface of 
the cornea, dipping down and finally mounting over the 
margin of the lower lid, and ultimately losing itself on 
the face. As we cannot recognise this on a living eye, 
it will at once lead one to suppose it as clear as glass, 
which is the case. Streaks of blood, when the eye is in- 
flamed, lie covered over by the tunica conjunctiva. Now 
if particles of sand, or other irritating substances, get 
under either eyelid, they cannot possibly enter but little 
way, before reaching the duplication of this transparent 
skin ; there is no danger, therefore ; the offending matter 
cannot get so far between the socket and ball, backward, 
as to abridge the free motion of the organ, or do a perma- 
nent injury to the parts. This partition, or doubling over 
of the conjunctiva, is a curious provision, as we are there- 
by enabled to reach the source of irritation. 

The principle of introducing eye-stones to extract 
foreign matter is this, and not owing, as vulgarly sup- 
posed, to the crawling about of a smooth piece of sulphate 
of lime, on some forty or fifty feet. The stone is so much 
larger than the extraneous body already there, that it 
excites a proportionably larger quantity of tears, to wash 
it away : in effect, therefore, we submit to a greater tem- 
porary evil, to get rid of a lesser one. 

What is the object of it? What prevents particles of matter 

What is the conjunctiva ? from reaching the backside of the 

Describe its connexion with the globes within the orbit ? 
eye. 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 



203 



Serpents annually shed their skins, which, unaccount- 
able as it at first appears, are whole over the eyes. That 
thin sheet, so very clear and fine in texture, is the con- 
junctiva, showing its origin; hence a similar origin may 
safely be inferred over other eyes. Every species of 
animal, with which naturalists are conversant, possess 
this defensive transparent membrane. 

THIRD EYELID, OR MEMBRANA NICTITANS. 

A third eyelid is given such animals as are destitute 
of hands, or are incapacitated, by the arrangement of their 
limbs, from reaching their eyes. This is called mem- 
brana nictitans, and a more striking piece of mechanism 
there is not in existence. It slides from one angle of the 
eye to the opposite one, under the first pair of lids, and 
that, too, whether the others are open or shut, being 
totally independent of them in muscular action. Its use 
cannot be mistaken : it is on purpose for clearing away 
matter that may be irritating to the eye. Any extraneous 
substance is brushed from the cornea in an instant, by the 
broad sweep of the night lid. Birds that seek their food 



Fig. 90. 




Explanation of Fig. 90. 



a, is a representation of an eye partly 
covered by the membrana nictitans. The 
second figure exhibits the backside of the 
same eye, where the mechanical arrangement 
of the muscles is plainly shown, b, is a broad 
radiated muscular sheet, curiously operated 
upon by a second muscle, the fleshy part of 
which is marked d, and its long, slender ten- 
don c. The fulcrum or fixed point of the 
muscle b, is varied by the contraction of d, in 
order to draw or withdraw the nictitating veil 
on the opposite side of the organ. 

By defending their eyes with this attenuated 
curtain, owls sit perched on the limb of a tree 
through the day, looking at the sun. They 
distinguish the light, though they cannot per- 
ceive objects distinctly. 

By opening the eyelids of a dog while sleep- 
ing, this membrane may be seen covering the 
cornea. Eagles, hawks, gulls, and other birds 
which fly high in the air, undoubtedly defend their irritable organs from 
the glare of light at great elevations, by this eyelid, when on the wing. 




Have serpents a similar mem- 
brane ? 



The utility, to brutes and birds, of 
a third eyelid ? 



204 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 



in the night, as owls, defend their irritable organs through 
the glare of daylight by drawing over this singular cur- 
tain. Dogs, cats, foxes, wolves, bears, lions, tigers, &c, 
can each of them, by this brush, remove the minutest 
mote from the cornea, more expeditiously than any oculist 
on the globe. 



TEARS. 

Perfection is everywhere observed in animal mechan- 
ics. The eye would soon become a useless instrument, 
notwithstanding the nice adjustment of its several parts, 
were it not for the external apparatus of eyelids, glands 
and tears, whose combined action keeps it always in a 
condition to be useful. Were not the cornea frequently 
moistened, it would become dry and shrivelled. To ob- 
viate this, a sack of fluid is fixed just under the edge of 
the orbit, above the eyeball, which is continually pouring 
out its contents by the pressure and rolling of the eye. 
Flowing through numberless apertures, it washes the 
crystal, and finally, passing into grooves, on the inner 

Fig. 91. 

Explanation of Fig . 91. 

This plan exhibits the natu- 
ral size of the passages of the 
tears. 

a, Is the lachrymal gland, or 
organ that secretes the tears; 
showing its natural situation, 
with respect to the eyelids. 

b 6, The eyelids widely open- 
ed. 

c, The situation of the punc- 
ta lachrymalia, or the holes at 
the inner angles of the lids, 
through which the tears flow to 
get into the tube which finally 
conveys the fluid to the nose, 

d d, The ducts continued from 
the punda lachrymalia. 

e e, The angles which the 
ducts form after leaving the 
puncta. 
f, The termination of the lachrymal ducts in gg. 

fg, The lachrymal sac. 
, The nasal duct continued from the lachrymal sac. 




Use of the tears ? After having flown over the cornea, 

Where is the sac that secretes the what becomes of this fluid ? 
tears ? 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 



205 



margin of both eyelids, runs to their terminations in a 
small pin-like orifice, at the inner angle. To keep them 
open, a hoop is set in the mouth of this tear tube. This, 
too, can be shown by turning the lid outward by the 
finger. Finally, the tears are conveyed into the nose 
through a bony tube, answering the double purpose of 
keeping moist the lining membrane, on which the sense 
of smell depends. On both eyelids, at the roots of the 
eyelashes, are in each a row of glands, equivalent to 
bags, smaller than pin-heads, which pour out an oily 
secretion, to prevent the adhesion of them together, as is 
sometimes the case when the eyes are much inflamed. 
Surely such manifest provision for contingencies is 
another beautiful illustration of superhuman contrivance. 

WHY DO AGED PERSONS REQUIRE CONVEX GLASSES? 

Age gradually relaxes the tension of the whole system ; 
the eye, therefore, suffers in a corresponding ratio. The 
cornea becomes less prominent : the convexity of the lens 
is also diminished, and the rays of light are consequently 
less convergent than formerly. The picture of the object 
is faint, because the rays have a tendency, by their di- 

Fig. 92. 




Explanation of Fig. 92. 

In this figure is represented the effect of old age on the humors. 
Without the intervention of the glass A, the rays have a direction which 
would form the image at some distance beyond the retina, as at B. But, 
by the convex glass A, which, for example* is the spectacle worn by aged 
people, the direction of the rays of light is so corrected, that the image 
falls accurately on the bottom of the eye, or retina. 



Of what use in the nasal cavities ? Why is the picture of objects less 

What prevents the adhesion of the distinct than in youth? 

eyelids during sleep, or when Are the powers of* the system, and 

greatly inflamed ? particularly the organs of sense, 

Why do the aged require convex feeble in age ? 
glasses ? 

18 



206 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK". 



vergency, to impinge at a supposable plane, beyond the 
retina. 

When the convex lens is interposed between the eye 
and object, as represented in the above diagram, the rays 
are made more converging, so that the picture strikes 
exactly and distinctly on the nerve. People slide their 
spectacles on the nose, unconsciously, till the true focus 
is procured. 

WHY DO NEAR-SIGHTED PERSONS SEE INDISTINCTLY ? 

Either the crystalline lens, but more generally the 
cornea, is too prominent, converging the light too sudden- 
ly ; that is, converging the luminous rays at an unnatural 
place within the vitreous humor. An indistinct outline 
of the object is the effect of their great divergency after 
decussating, before they arrive at the retina. The fol- 
lowing diagrams will illustrate the subject far better than 
a whole volume of written explanations.^ 

Fig. 93. 




Explanation of Fig. 93. 

In this figure, the convexity of the cornea, or the focal powers of the 
lens, being too great for the length of the axis of the eye, the image is 
formed at A, before the rays reach the surface of the retina, or inner box, 
illustrated in Fig. 82, letter c ; and after coming accurately to the point, 
they again begin to diverge ; which diverging rays, striking the surface 
of the retina, give the indistinct vision of the near-sighted individual. 
But as this indistinctness of vision proceeds from no opacity, but only 
the disproportion of the convexity of the eye to the diameter, the defect 
is corrected by a concave glass, represented in the next figure. 

* A series of models were devised by the author a few years since, 
illustrating every part of the mechanism of the eye and ear, on a very 
large scale. The length of the model of the ear, from the external orifice 
to the inner point of the temporal bone, where the acoustic nerve enters 
the labyrinth, exceeds two feet. 

These are now extensively manufactured by Mr. Joseph Brown, Wash- 
ington street, Boston. They have become necessary apparatus in a 



How does a convex lens correct 

the vision ? 
What is the course of some of the 

causes producing near-sighted- 



ness ? 
Can you draw a diagram to illus- 
trate the principle ? 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 207 

Concave glasses are the restoratives of the near-sighted 
eye, by separating the rays, and carrying the image so 
far back as to place it on the retina. Old age, the de- 
struction of the first eye, eventually restores the near- 
sighted, by the gradual flattening of the cornea, till, at 
threescore and ten, such persons can see clearly and dis- 
tinctly without artificial aid. Many near-sighted people 
totally ruin the organ by prematurely wearing glasses, as 
a focus is established which neither glasses can keep 
pace with in age, nor age thoroughly overcome. 

Fig. 94. 




Explanation of Pig'. 94. 

The effect of this glass being exactly the reverse of the convex, it 
causes the rays to fall upon the surface of the eye so far diverging from 
the perpendicular line, as to correct the too great convergence caused by 
the convexity of the humors. When a near-sighted person has brought 
the object near enough to the eye to see it distinctly, he sees more mi- 
nutely, and consequently more clearly, because he sees the object larger, 
and as a person with a common eye tloes when assisted with a magnify- 
ing glass. A near-sighted person sees distant objects indistinctly; and 
as the eye, in consequence, rests with less accuracy upon surrounding 
objects, the piercing look of the eye is very much diminished ; and it has, 
moreover, a dulness and heaviness of aspect. Again, the near-sighted 
person knits his eyebrows and half closes the eyelids ; this he does un- 
consciously, to change the direction of the rays, and to correct the inac- 
curacy of the image. Near-sighted people have but little expression; 
the countenance loses all its dignity, by habitually wearing glasses. 

An incurable injury is continually being inflicted by 
those who are habitually applying a prospect, or, as more 
generally called, a quizzing glass to the eye. Those 
accompaniments of senseless foppery which young gen- 
tlemen and ladies take infinite pains to exhibit, of rich 
and costly workmanship, dangling at the extremity of a 
golden chain, or, if the individual's finances forbid, at the 
end of a yard of ribbon, have laid the sure foundation of 
imperfect vision, if not total blindness of one eye, in old 

majority of the seminaries, academies, and colleges throughout the New 
England states. Physicians and medical students would find them ex- 
ceedingly valuable. 



208 ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 

age. The eyes will not correspond after a while ; or, to 
be better understood, two objects of different sizes are 
perceived, instead of one of the natural size and color. 

Wearing green spectacles, another ridiculous mania, 
which boys of a certain class seem to imagine adds 
wonderfully to the dignity of their appearance, are ruinous 
appendages, and should be prohibited by parents, unless 
there is an urgent necessity for them. 

In walking the fashionable streets of the principal cities 
in this country, or in looking into the institutions of learn- 
ing, it is actually a subject of marvel to a stranger, that 
about one twentieth of the male youth are decorated with 
spectacles. 

Now the principle of using glasses, when neither age 
or near-sightedness demands them, is this, viz., to inter- 
cept some one of the seven prismatic colors, which pro- 
duces irritation. Green spectacles are most fashionable. 

Let us examine the matter a little further, philosophi- 
cally. 

Because green is perfectly agreeable to the constitution 
of the eye, our good and benevolent Creator has made 
this the predominant color of the whole vegetable king- 
dom ; green, therefore, as it respects the laws of vision, of 
all others is least irritating and the most required. By 
preventing the ingress of the green ray, vision is not per- 
fect: nature loses much of her beauty, because every 
thing seems to be surrounded by a murky atmosphere. 

Modern discovery has demonstrated that there are colo- 
rific rays entering the eye. Glasses which would arrest 
their progress, oftentimes the undoubted, though, perhaps, 
unsuspected source of chronic inflammation, would be of 
some consequence. Again, the red ray, under certain 
pathological conditions of the organ, is unquestionably 
another powerful but equally inscrutable cause of disease. 
Red glasses would only stop the red rays, as the green 
ones restrain the transition of the green. It follows, 
therefore, that the latter, indiscriminately worn, for effect^ 
which is too frequently the case, are injurious, and ought 
not to be used; while the red ones would be very appro- 
priate and beneficial, under certain modifications of opthal- 
mic affections. But no one would wear red spectacles,, 
because they would look so singularly. 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 209 

THE IMAGE OF AN OBJECT IN THE EYE IS INVERTED. 

Eays of light going from the upper and lower points of 
an object are refracted towards the perpendicular ; that 
is, bent out of the course which they have a tendency to 
run, by the crystalline lens behind, where they unite in 
a point, and, then crossing, diverge again. Here, then, 
the image is bottom upward, as will be noticed in the 
preceding diagrams by the arrow and its image on the 
retina. Decussation is indispensable to the vision of 
things. An object could not be represented on a point ; 
there must be surface to create an image on; and by the 
laws of optics, the representation of the object, without an 
additional glass, within the eye, must necessarily be as it 
is, bottom upward. 

THE OBJECT IS SEEN IN ITS TRUE POSITION. 

Habit is supposed to be the cause of seeing objects as 
they really exist in relation to surrounding bodies. An 
attempt has been made to prove that the cornea is the 
true seat of vision, and that we see by means of erect and 
reflected, and not by refracted and inverted images. A 
few philosophers conceive that the mind contemplates the 
object only, without reference to its representation on the 
retina, which is made there as a natural result. Certain 
it is, that without the image there is no vision. 

How the brain is operated upon by the light that de- 
fines the object, will probably never be known. The 
minuteness of the picture traced on the retina, precisely 
like the object in every minute particular, is truly asto- 
nishing. By cutting off the coats of a bullock's eye and 
holding a clean white paper near, this beautiful exhibition 
can be leisurely observed. If a sheet of white cotton 
cloth, six feet square, is elevated 24,000 feet in the air, 
the eye being supposed one inch in diameter, the minia- 
ture of the cloth on the retina will be only one eight 
thousandth part of an inch square ; which is equivalent 



How happens it that the image of plates the image, and not the ob- 

an object on the retina is invert- ject ? 

ed? Can the change wrought on the 

How is it supposed that we actually brain by the presence of an image 

see things as they are, admitting in the eye be explained ? 

that the mind merely contem- 

18* 



210 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 



to the 666th part of a line, — being only the 66th part of 
the width of a common hair ! 



WITH BOTH EYES ONLY ONE OBJECT IS SEEN. 

At one side of the centre of each eye, there is a surface 
more susceptible of visual impressions than any other. 
These points correspond in both eyes, being precisely on 
the two retinas alike. An impression therefore on one, 
provided the light strikes them equally, produces precise- 
ly the same effect on both. This, instead of making 
vexation, gives strength and greater vividness, as the 
images are on surfaces of the same structure, transmit- 
ting, through the two optic nerves, the same idea, or that 
indescribable something that creates an idea. The optic 
axes, by this explanation, will be understood. If one eye 
is distorted, pressed by the finger one side, when we are 
in the act of contemplating an object, it will appear 
double, but less distinct in the one so distorted. The 
rationale is this : viz. the visual surface on which the 
image is made, so exactly alike in both eyes as to call up 
but one idea, being forced out of the optic axis, the rays 
still make the picture, but on a surface less highly organ- 



Fig, 95, 




Explanation of Fig. 95. 
In this figure, B, B, the eyes, having 
their axes directed to A, will see the 
object C double, somewhere near the 
outline D, D ; because the line of the 
direction of the rays from C does not 
strike the retina in the same relation 
to the axis, A, B, in both eyes. If a 
candle is placed at the distance of ten 
feet, and I hold my ringer, at arm's 
length, between the eye and the can- 
dle, when I look at the candle my 
finger appears double, and when I 
look at the finger the candle is double. 



Is there any one point in the eye 
better adapted to visual impres- 
sions than another ? 

Why do we not see two objects, or 
have a distinct perception of two 



images, when looking with two 
eyes? 
When distorting one eye, why do 
we have two or more objects 1 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 



211 



ized, that does not correspond with the surface on that 
retina which has not been disturbed. The two images 
have now different localities. No course of experiments 
is more within the reach of the scholar. 



Fig. 96. 




Explanations of Fig. 9 6 . 

A is exactly in the centre of the 
axes of both eyes ; consequently, it is 
distinctly seen; and it also appears 
single, because the form of it strikes 
upon the points of the retina opposite 
to the pupils in both eyes. Those 
points have a correspondence, and the 
object is strengthened in the liveliness 
of the image. Again, the object B 
will be seen fainter, but siugle and 
correct. It will appear so because 
there is only one spot in each eye 
which possesses the degree of sensibi- 
lity necessary to perfect vision ; thus, 
it will be understood, the object will 
appear single, as the rays of light 
proceeding from it have exactly the 
same relation to the retinas in both 
eyes. 



CROSS-EYED PERSONS SEE ONLY WITH ONE EYE. 

With such as have a permanent squint, (cross-eye,) 
only one eye is used, though they may not be apprehen- 
sive of the fact. From continued neglect, the distorted 
organ wanders farther and farther from the axis of vision, 
till it finally becomes totally useless : hence one is doubt- 
ful, at times, which way the cross-eyed person is looking, 
from a want of parallelism in the motions of the eyes. 
When the wandering eye is exclusively attended to, the 
vision appears unimpaired. The image is well painted 
in the natural one, but weak in the other, solely because 
the place of the image does not correspond with the place 
of the image in the first. The mind, instinctively, there- 
fore, is devoted to the eye that gives the liveliest impres- 
sion, to the entire neglect of its aberrating fellow. 



Do squint-eyed persons see with Which eye is most serviceable ? 

both eyes at once ? Is the expression of the face influ- 

Why does the weak eye become enced by this ? 

distorted ? 



212 ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 

THE PUPILS OF AN ALBINO'S EYES ARE RED. 

If a person is born without the pigmentum nigrum, — 
which is a paint that absorbs all unnecessary light after 
the image is formed, — the blood-vessels of which the 
tunica choroides, or second coat, is made, are not hidden; 
consequently, they show through the transparent humors, 
like a sparkling red gem, the size of the diameter of the 
pupil. Such persons can see better in a weak light than 
in broad day, because the brightness of the sun's light 
dazzles, and produces a tremulous motion in the whole 
organ. As an evidence that this redness is caused by the 
blood in the vessels, after death, when it coagulates, the 
redness in a great measure disappears. White rabbits, 
white mice, besides a vast variety of birds, have no pig- 
ment on the choroides, and are therefore distinguished for 
red pupils. The existence of the pigmentum nigrum is 
an evidence of a day-seeing eye. In man, the want of it, 
constituting the albino, is an anomaly. 

A morbid action of the absorbents sometimes removes 
the paint, and the pupil, to the surprise of observers, 
becomes scarlet. A partial absorption of it is often the 
cause of a diminution of the original powers of vision : 
under such circumstances, the pupil assumes a bronze 
hue, accompanied by a debility and tremor of the globe 
under the influence of a moderate degree of light. 

MANY ANIMALS SEE IN THE DARK. 

Owls, fishes, cats, bats, &c, instead of the pigmentum 
nigrum, have a silvery paint of a metallic lustre, where 
others have the black paint, which operates like a concave 
mirror, in reflecting the light from point to point, within 
the eye, illuminating it, till its concentration excites the 
retina to perceive. When viewing a cat's eyes in the 
remote part of a dark room, there are certain positions in 
which they are seen by the observer, by the reflected light 

What sort of an eye has an albino, How is the pigment removed ? 

and how does it differ essentially How is a diminution of the power 

from any other ? of vision sometimes explained ? 

Why are the pupils of rabbits' eyes Can some animals see as well in 

red ? the dark as in the light ? 

Why can albinos see best in the Is the cat's eye phosphorescent, or 

dark? is the light reflected within, from 

How is it that the redness of the one surface to another ? 

pupil disappears after death? 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 213 

within themselves, as though they were phosphorescent : 
their brilliancy is very peculiar. Upon the principle of a 
looking-glass behind the retina, all the night-prowling 
animals are qualified for seeing with those few rays of 
light which the constitution of their eyes is formed for 
collecting in the dark. By daylight they perceive objects, 
as man does in the dark, indistinctly. 

Nature is remarkably economical in the use of matter 
which enters into the composition of animal bodies. If a 
man be kept a long time in a perfectly dark room, the 
black pigment is taken away; but a compensation is 
given him, for he can then see as perfectly in the dark as 
he could before in the light. On the other hand, the paint 
is deposited again when he is restored to the light of day. 
This point has been decided in the persons of state prison- 
ers kept in the dungeons of Europe. 

Is there any arrangement in the eye, and what is it, by 
which animals that see in the dark are enabled to make 
up for the want of external light ? When we consider 
the metallic lustre of the tapetum, which, in many ani- 
mals, occupies a great part of the choroid coat, or even its 
whole surface ; farther, its resemblance to a concave mir- 
ror, and its relation to the light that penetrates into the 
interior of the eye, we cannot help considering it as the 
means employed for this purpose, by its collecting the 
light, and illuminating, by its reflection, objects lying in 
the axis of the eye. Prevost objects to this explanation, 
that there are many animals whose eyes have no tapetum, 
although they conduct themselves as if they saw in the 
dark. This is actually the case. The tapetum occurs 
in carnivora, ruminantia, pachydermata, cetacea, owls, 
crocodiles, snakes, rays, and sharks : it is wanting in 
apes, glires, cheiroptera, hedgehogs and moles ; in birds, 
with the exception of owls, and in osseous fishes. But 
the gnawers or glires, bats, the hedgehog and mole, are 
animals that obtain their food more by night than during 
the day; and many of them conduct themselves in the 
deepest darkness as if they were directed by the sense of 
sight. But this objection may be obviated, by remarking, 

What would be the effect upon the been converted into an exclusive- 
eyes by keeping an individual a ly night-seeing man, ever be re- 
long time m a perfectly dark stored again, were he placed 
place? within the sphere of the light's 

Would such a person, after having influence 1 



214 ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 

that it is probably some other sense than that of vision, 
which procures for many of these animals sensations of 
external objects in the dark. We have, in favor of this 
opinion, not only the experiments of Spallanzani on bats, 
from which it appears that, after these creatures were 
deprived of the use of their eyes, they conducted them- 
selves as if they still possessed the power of vision, but 
also the examples of species of that family, in which the 
eyes are so imperfectly developed, or lie so much con- 
cealed behind the outer skin, that they are of little or no 
use to the animal. The genera that see in the dark have 
undoubtedly so irritable a retina, that they can only see 
during a very feeble light ; whereas, in those animals 
whose eyes are organized equally for daylight and noc- 
turnal darkness, the retina possesses less irritability. 
Hence, although these are without a tapetum, it does not 
follow that this organic part does not afford a mean for 
seeing during a feeble light. 

The tapetum is either spread over the whole choroid, 
or only over the upper half of it. The first is the case 
with the cetacea, owls, and with those amphibia and 
fishes which are provided with this shining envelope ; 
the second occurs in carnivorous and ruminating animals. 
It is more extended in the ruminating than in the car- 
nivorous tribes ; but it always extends so far as to encom- 
pass the posterior extremity of the internal ocular axis. 
All the rays of light from external objects which reach it 
are united on it, through the transparent part of the eye, 
and it again reflects back the whole united rays towards 
the lens. This latter unites them into a single cone, 
which has the ocular axis as its axis, and its point is 
directed outwards. The very convergent rays of this 
cone become more divergent by their passage from the 
lens into the aqueous fluid, and from this into air or 
water. Finally, the apex of this cone falls into the point 
of most distinct vision ; for in this point is situated the 
focus of all the -rays that reach from the interior of the 
eye to the posterior surface of the lens. The cone is 
complete when the tapetum is spread over the whole of 
the choroid ; but the upper half of it is wanting when it 
occupies only the upper hemisphere of the coat. The 
tapetum is confined to the upper half of the choroid in all 
animals, whose residence and manner of life are of such 
a nature, that the under half of the retina is immediately 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 215 

struck by bright daylight, and for this simple reason, 
because the animal must have been dazzled by the reflec- 
tion of the bright light from the under half of the latter. 
It covers the whole posterior portion of the internal eye 
in the cetacea and owls, many amphibia, rays, and sharks, 
because these animals live constantly in the water, or in 
a feebly luminous medium, or have their place of resi- 
dence in dark corners, or go in quest of food during the 
night. The experiments and observations of Prevost and 
Esser, detailed in 1826 and 1827, show that the reflection 
of light from the tapetum is the cause of the luminousness 
of the eyes, observed under certain circumstances in the 
twilight, in cats, dogs, sheep, and in general in all the 
animals having a tapetum. But whether or not a phos- 
phoric light sometimes proceeds from the retina or choroid, 
has not as yet been fully ascertained. There are many 
examples of a luminousness in the dark having been 
observed in the human eye. 

FISHES CANNOT SEE IN AIR AS WELL AS IN WATER. 

When the rays of light pass from a rarer to a denser 
medium, as from -air into the aqueous humor of the eye, 
they are refracted towards the perpendicular. Now the 
fish has but a drop, as it were, of aqueous humor, and, 
moreover, the light arrives at its eyes through the w T hole 
body of water above. The light is refracted only in a 
small degree in entering its eye, because the humor is of 
the same density of the fluid through which the light is 
transmitted. The cornea is quite flat ; if it were promi- 
nent, like the human eye, the sphere of vision would be 
too circumscribed; but by giving a prominence to the 
whole, and placing the crystalline lens in the fore part 
of the eye, they have a long diameter, and, with the 
provision of a large pupil, are completely fitted for seeing 
in the element in which they were destined to live. 
With an eye of this description they must necessarily see 
in air as other animals see in water. 

Those animals whose eyes are organized for seeing in 
water, see but indifferently in air. Hence, in those cases 
where the habits of the animal require it to see in both 

Why was it necessary, in the plan of convex, like a land-seeing eye? 
of aqueous vision, that the cornea What would the character be of a 
of a fish should be flat, instead fish's vision in the air ? 



216 ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 

elements, it is provided with two sets of eyes, or with 
eyes accommodated for seeing in both.^ 

It cannot be denied, that, in general, land animals can 
see under water, and aquatic animals in air ; even man 
sees under water, although the contrary has been main- 
tained. It is not, however, possible that the same eye is 
ever so organized as to see equally well in both elements. 
Land animals always see indifferently in water, and 
aquatic animals imperfectly in air. The one is long- 
sighted in water, and the other short-sighted in air. An 
animal in which the eye is adapted for seeing equally 
well in air and water, can have but imperfect vision in 
either. These conclusions are in conformity with what 
is known of the power of vision in those animals which 
live partly on the land and partly in the water. The seal 
lives in both elements ; but it has but imperfect vision in 
the air. 

We have the most satisfactory evidence of the short- 
sightedness of seals, from a series of experiments and 
observations, made in Boston harbor. 

As light loses more of its power in passing through 
water than in passing through air, and is still more weak- 
ened in its progress through the membranes, it follows 
that, owing to this cause, vision must be less distinct 
under water than in the air. 

MAN CANNOT SEE DISTINCTLY UNDER WATER. 

A man under water sees objects as a very aged person 
sees through a concave glass, placed close to the eye. 
The fish is long-sighted under water, and man is short- 
sighted. If he uses spectacles, whose convexity is just 
equal on both sides to the cornea of his own eye, he will 

* A fish peculiar to Surinam, from three to ten inches in length, called 
anibleps, has the front part or cornea of the eye shapen like the two sides 
of a glass prism : the pupil is therefore divided, horizontally, in the mid- 
dle. One half is used in the water, and the upper half for seeing in the 
air. These singular fishes run out of the deep water, into the slimy 
banks of the river, to hunt for small worms, their principal sustenance. 
In doing this their bodies are necessarily half out of water. Thus, 
while searching in the mud with the lower division, with the upper they 
keep a vigilant look-out for reptiles and rapacious birds, their constant 
enemies. 

Upon what principle does a man use under water, to make objects 
see underwater? appear, in relation to color, dis- 

What sort of glasses could a man tance, &c. as they really are ? 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 217 

see under water distinctly. The necessity of this is 
obvious : the aqueous humor is of the same density with 
the water, and there cannot, therefore, be any refraction 
of the rays in passing from the water into the land-seeing 
eye. 

Euclid supposed that vision was occasioned by the 
emission of rays from the eye to the object. He thought 
it more natural to suppose that an animate substance 
gave an emanation than that an inanimate one did. In 
1560 the opinion that the rays entered the eye was estab- 
lished. Kepler, in 1600, showed geometrically how the 
rays were refracted through all the humors, so as to form 
a distinct picture on the retina; and he also demonstrated 
the effect of glasses on the eyes. 

HOW DOES THE EYE ADAPT ITSELF TO THE DISTANCE OF 
OBJECTS ? 

No one has satisfactorily answered this question. One 
philosopher supposes the eye at rest when we examine a 
distant object, as a mountain, the spire of a church, or a 
landscape, but that in the act of seeing near objects there 
is an effort. It has been supposed that this effort is the 
action of the straight muscles, exhibited in the first plan 
of the cordage of the eye, compressing the globe so 
equally as to elongate the eye and lengthen the axis, so 
much as to favor the union of the pencils of rays on the 
retina. This could not take place in many aquatic 
animals, in whose eyes the sclerotica is perfect bone. 

Another opinion is, that the eye is at rest in looking at 
near objects, and laboring when viewing things at a dis- 
tance. Another is of the opinion that the iris contracts, 
and so draws the circular margin of the cornea towards 
the pupil as to make it more or less convex, according 
to circumstances. A great variety of experiments have 
been instituted, to determine accurately whether there 
really is any change made in the length of the axis of 
the eyeball or not, but none of them can be certainly 
relied upon. A favorite theory has had its advocates, 
that the crystalline lens has an inherent power of altering 
its degree of convexity, and thus accommodates the eye 

Has any one satisfactorily explain- see both near and distant ob- 
ed how the eye adjusts itself to jects ? 

19 



218 ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 

to all distances. The truth is, an action takes place in 
the eye, in adapting itself to near and distant objects, 
which depends on that vital property of a living system 
which no theory can reach, and which the deductions of 
human philosophy can never with certainty explain. 



FEELING, OR TOUCH. 

Touch is a sensation excited by the contact of bodies, 
by which we are enabled to appreciate their various 
qualities, as hard, soft, hot, cold, wet and dry. The 
immediate seat of this sense is at the point where the 
nerves terminate in little papillae, and therefore most per- 
fect at the points of the fingers. This sense is under- 
going incessant changes from infancy to age. 

That general sense of feeling over all the surface of 
the body, by which we can designate the forms and other 
characters of substances brought in contact with the skin, 
we define to be perception, 

SMELL. 

Perhaps the sense of smell is of the least consequence 
to man of all his senses: nature designed it and placed 
it as a safeguard over the stomach, to detect the hurtful 
from the wholesome food; and in savages it answers this 
purpose, being always in requisition. In civilized life, 
however, it is of very little consequence. Its importance 
to brutes is manifested continually. 

TASTE. 

This sense resides in the tongue, on which the gusta- 
tory nerve terminates, in the form of very small tubercles, 
beginning at the point and reaching quite into the throat. 
By it we distinguish certain qualities, as sweet, sour, 

Define the sense of feeling. very important in civilized life ? 

Where is it most perfect ? Of what importance is it to brutes ? 

What is perception ? Give your views upon the sense of 

Is the sense of smell considered taste. 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 219 

bitter, acrid, &c. Before the sensation is complete, the 
substance is necessarily dissolved in the saliva of the 
mouth, by which means it is uniformly presented to the 
nervous papillae. 

The sense of taste is believed by physiologists to be 
very imperfect in the lower orders. As a general re- 
mark, fishes feed indifferently on every thing, when 
pressed by hunger. Anglers have various methods of 
enticing them to take the hook, but it is obviously through 
an exquisite sense of smell that they are so speedily 
brought round the bait. A law exists in Massachusetts 
forbidding people from taking fish with Indian-berry, so 
called, which is seized with avidity. They become 
intoxicated, apparently, in a few minutes, and, floating 
indolently near the surface, can be taken readily with the 
hand. The mode of using it is to mix the pulverized 
berry with bread, in about equal parts, strew it in the 
water, and wait the result. 

Crocodiles, batrachian reptiles, such as frogs, and even 
serpents, seem to possess no sense of taste. It is quite 
doubtful whether grain-feeding birds have it, as they as 
quickly pick up imitation corn as the real. However, 
each of these has a compensation, and a species of enjoy- 
ment arising from the process of digestion, suited to their 
organization. Both saurians and ophidians, that is, lizards 
and serpents, after gorging their food, with no mastication 
in the latter case, become helpless and inactive, and re- 
main so till the contents of the stomach have been taken 
into the circulation. This peculiar condition after eating, 
only after long intervals, sometimes of weeks or months, 
enables other animals to overcome them, and thus the 
multiplication of these formidable races is limited. 



THE GLANDS, 

OR ADENOLOGY. 



Glands are generally round, fatty bodies, placed at 
short distances, both internally and externally, whose 
function is either to secrete a fluid, or change the quality 



220 ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 

of that which has been collected by another gland in the 
neighborhood. Thus, the salivary glands about the in- 
side of the cheek, and below the tongue, secrete the saliva 
of the mouth. The lachrymal glands secrete the tears, 
and the mucus glands secrete mucus. Their importance 
in the animal economy is very great. Tumefactions, or 
sudden swellings of glands by severe colds, indicate, by 
the derangement they cause to other organs, their high 
consequence. 

All the different fluids are drawn by appropriate vessels 
directly from the circulating blood, and conveyed into the 
various glands. Now we have no means of knowing 
what modifying influence these organs have upon this 
fluid. They are drawn from one fountain, yet that which 
enters the salivary glands, in the region of the mouth, 
becomes saliva, an indispensable diluent for the food. 
Another portion, on being conducted to the lachrymal 
gland in the orbit, is converted into something altogether 
different in character from saliva, and only suitable for 
moistening the eye. And so it is with them all — each 
elaborating from what may have been carried to it, from 
the great fountain, a fluid chemically peculiar, and of the 
utmost importance in the economy of the system. 

INTERNAL ORGANS, OR SPLANCHNOLOGY. 

Under this division is embraced the viscera or contents 
of the three great cavities, viz., in the head, chest, and 
abdomen. Of the contents of the skull we have already 
treated. 

VISCERA OF THE THORAX. 

Within the thorax or chest, which is bounded by the 
neck above and the diaphragm or midriff below, are con- 
tained the following organs, viz : the pleura, lungs, heart, 
thymus gland, (Esophagus, thoracic duct, arch of the aorta, 
branches of the cava, vena azygos, eight pairs of nerves, 
and part of the sympathetic nerve. 

PLEURA. 

Two membranous sacs are lodged in the chest, one 
on either side, attached closely to the ribs, but their sides, 
meeting in the middle, under the breast bone, unite and 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 221 

form a partition, called mediastinum. Thus the chest is 
lined, so that each lung has an independent apartment. 

The heart, inclosed in its case, lies in a triangular 
space between the two lungs. 

DIAPHRAGM. 

This is nearly a horizontal partition between the chest 
and abdomen, and is perfectly muscular. . Its border 
adheres to the ribs, breast bone, and spine. Through it, 
near the spine, are openings for the passage of the swal- 
low, blood-vessels, and nerves. 

The diaphragm is a muscle of respiration, rising up- 
ward as the lungs collapse, and falling down again as the 
lungs become inflated. 

This fleshy partition, which separates the body into 
upper and lower regions, is a very curious piece of 
mechanism, usually called the midriff. It is, in fact, a 
great muscle of respiration. It receives nerves high up 
in the neck, quite above the shoulders, for the purpose, as 
it were, of placing it beyond the sympathetic influence of 
the immense collection of nerves within the chest and 
abdomen. If the spine be injured below the origin of 
these cervico-diaphragmatic nerves, respiration is not 
destroyed. Repeated cases are on record of persons who 
had so entirely lost the sense of feeling in the lower part 
of the body and extremities, in consequence of having the 
spine injured by falls, &c. that no difference could be felt 
between heat or cold; and yet, owing to this beautiful 
contrivance of having the nerves take their origin in the 
neck, such unfortunate, almost totally helpless beings, in 
the full possession of their intellectual powers, with a 
vital apparatus unimpaired, though one half the body was 
dead, as regarded sensation, have lived to the full term 
of three-score and ten. Birds have no diaphragm, their 
thorax and abdomen being one common cavity. 

LUNGS. 

These are two membranous organs, by which breathing 
is effected. The physiology of the function of the lungs 
has been considered in detail with the circulation of the 
blood. They are divided into right and left : the right 
lung has three lobes, but the left only two. They seem 
19* 



222 ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 

to be made up of a spongy substance, air tubes, and 
blood-vessels. Their use cannot be misapprehended. 

By respiration, is meant the ingress of air into the 
lungs, and by expiration, its egress from them. 

Voluntary respiration depends upon the will, when we 
are awake, but spontaneous is the respiration of sleep. 
It is thought that the exciting cause of the process is the 
irritation of the nerves in the air cells, which, by a con- 
sent of parts, gains the assistance of the diaphragm and 
intercostal muscles and ribs to expel it. The object of 
respiration is the oxygenation of the blood. Though the 
vital temperature of the body cannot be readily accounted 
for, it is generally admitted that heat is developed by the 
action of the atmospheric air on the volume of blood 
exposed to its influence within the air cells. 

As an introduction to a description of the vocal appara- 
tus of man and other animals, it seems necessary, first, to 
explain both the process of breathing and its necessity in 
the animal economy : because, in the sequel, it will be 
apparent, that without lungs there could be no voice. 

Such is the constitution of every living creature, that a 
free use of atmospheric air is absolutely necessary for 
sustaining life. The mere circumstance of being sur- 
rounded by air is not sufficient : if it were, there would 
be various ingenious devices for maintaining life, after 
the lungs were rendered useless by disease or accident. 

It is absolutely necessary that air should be taken into 
the system, and brought in contact with the moving blood. 
The various modes by which nature has accomplished 
this, in the mechanism of some animals, will now be con- 
sidered. 

If Spallanzani and some others are to be credited, in 
their accounts of what they discovered by the microscope, 
we have the first plan of a breathing structure. Spallan- 
zani pretended he saw the respiration of animalcules in 
vinegar. They were shapen like stars, and in the centre 
of each were two dark globular spots, one of which he 
conceived to be the heart pulsating, and the other the 
lungs. Every two or three seconds, to use his own 



What is meant by respiration? How is vital heat maintained? 

Are there two kinds of respiration? Could any animal exist without 

Is any change effected on the quali- air ^ 
ty of the blood by respiration ? 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 223 

words, they were slowly blown up three or four times 
their natural size, and then slowly compressed again. A 
modern physiologist remarks, that the Abbe must have 
forgotten himself in assigning them lungs, for they were 
evidently aquatic animals, and therefore did not require 
them. 

Passing by the microscope, let us examine something 
more tangible, — the families of insects. They are so 
organized that, in proportion to their bulk, they require a 
prodigious supply of air. The heart is the only percep- 
tible organ in flies and worms : how their breathing 
organs are constructed we are totally ignorant. 

Pertaining to that apparatus, the existence of which 
cannot be questioned, is an immense number of air tubes, 
coursing over and through every part of them, distin- 
guishable with the naked eye, resembling white lines. It 
is necessary that these be always distended. They open 
generally with free mouths, on the sides of the body, and 
wherever there is a ring or line it marks the place of one 
of them. 

In worms it also appears necessary that the air holes or 
spiracula be perfectly free and open. The moment a 
little varnish is applied, ever so delicately, to the last 
holes, that portion towards the tail is paralyzed. By 
closing the next two, another ring is palsied; if all but 
the two last, towards the head, are closed, it still lives, 
though it cannot move ; but when the last of the series 
are closed, it dies immediately. 

Some vermin require more air, judging from analogy, 
than others much superior in size. So variously are the 
tubes ramified, that the viscera appears to occupy only 
about one fifth of the whole internal cavity. 

Before insects arrive to their perfect state of existence, 
they are destined to undergo several interesting changes. 
First they are worms, ordinarily of a loathsome and dis- 
gustful appearance ; and lastly, a beautiful winged insect, 
the object of peculiar admiration. In this change there 
is nothing discoverable to the philosopher like the death 
and resurrection of the insect, so often the theme of 
writers. It does not die while undergoing the change ; 



How do insects breathe ? What are their breathing holes 

Have worms a similar apparatus ? technically called ? 



224 ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 

if it did, the process would never be perfected : close the 
spiracula and there is forever an end to its existence. 

While the caterpillar crawls on its numerous feet, 
under its coarse, hairy skin, it has six legs, inimitably 
folded next the body; two pairs of wings, that only require 
the sun's rays to astonish us with the beauty of their 
coloring; and a proboscis, nicely packed away, to sip the 
honey which will be its future food. The period finally 
arrives when a development of these embryo organs is 
about to take place. Some inscrutable sensation, of which 
the worm appears to have an instinctive knowledge, as it 
seeks a quiet, safe, and warm retreat, gives it a timely 
warning. The old covering becomes dry and dark ; the 
fluids cease to circulate in it, and gradually, as the legs 
and wings gain freedom within, they push it entirely off; 
thus disentangled, it flits away on its untried wings, from 
flower to flower. 

While the skin was drying, the worm breathed, as it 
did before, through the air holes of the old covering. 

Insects, it is supposed, never breathe by the mouth. 
The nymphae of gnats can raise themselves to the surface 
of a pool, and breathe by an orifice in their backs. The 
hydrocanthiri breathe by thrusting their tails out of water. 
Bugs, flies, and worms, which live in filth, ditches, and 
deep under ground, breathe the pure air which is in their 
air tubes, and when it is exhausted they travel near 
enough to the surface to replenish their stock. But the 
maggot of the eruca labra has the most extraordinary, 
apparatus imaginable. It shoots from its tail a tube, 
resembling the slides of a spy-glass, one beyond another. 
The last has a star-like tuft on the end, which, unfolding 
on the water, enables it, thus buoyed up, to breathe 
freely, while it floats about at pleasure, in search of food. 

Fishes are without lungs, and yet they require a con- 
stant supply of air, though in a lesser quantity than 
animals with a double heart. Such is their peculiarity 
of structure that they breathe a mixture of air and water 
together. The gills enable them to perform this process. 
Deprive water of its air, and the fish dies as soon as it 



While undergoing their metamor- What organs do fishes possess 
phoses, do they continue to analogous in function to lungs ? 

breathe ? Could they live in water deprived 

Have fishes lungs ? of atmospheric air ? 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 225 

would out of water. The free exposure of the gills to 
water is not sufficient : it is necessary to propel the water 
through them forcibly. If the feathery gills of a small 
perch could be unfolded and spread, it is not improbable 
that they would cover a square yard. This will not 
appear so extraordinary when it is recollected that the 
nerve in a dog's nose is spread into so thin a web, that it 
is computed to be equal to four square feet. Observe the 
wonderful economy of nature ; this web is so rolled up, 
like a scroll of parchment, that it could be packed away 
in a thimble. 

Nearly one third of all the blood is exposed to the 
action of the air, in the gills, at the same time. The fish 
draws in a mouthful of water, and with a quick motion, 
by closing the jaws, drives it through the gills, and this 
imparts vitality, and restores the red color to the dark 
blood of the veins. 

Various tribes of fishes w^hich seek their food in the 
mud, and foetid, turbid water, have a striking provision 
for defending their gills ; otherwise they would become 
clogged, and breathing would be interrupted by the very 
filth in which they were actually created to live. Their 
gills are small, and covered by the common skin of the 
body. The water is taken at the mouth, and driven with 
the same force as in the other case, but emptied through 
holes on each side of the neck, just back of the jaws. 
The force is always sufficient, by dividing the water into 
distinct portions, to keep the openings completely clear. 
In fact, the action is like that of an apothecary's syringe. 
A familiar example of this sort of animal mechanism may 
be seen in the lamprey eel. 

A similar breathing apparatus is provided for shell 
fishes, having, however, an additional contrivance, by 
which they can live a considerable time out of water. 
Here let the mechanism be particularly noticed, and ad- 
mired too, as the first step towards a terrestrial animal. 
As those inhabiting salt water are necessarily exposed, by 
the receding of tides, without a limb to assist them in 
regaining their home, and so organized with extensive 

Is breathing a voluntary or involun- respect to this function ? 

tary process with them ? Is there any thing remarkable in 

Explain the principle of their respi- the structure of the breathing 

ration. apparatus of shell fishes 1 
Are all fishes organized alike, m 



226 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 



gills, encircling two thirds of the circumference of the 
shell, that they cannot breathe air, their apparently help- 
less condition has been provided for in this interesting 
manner, viz : they are furnished with a long elastic pipe, 
which is a reservoir for water. At necessary intervals 
the fish ejects a drop, with surprising force, through the 
fringes of the gills, and then remains quiet, till some 
instinctive sensation warns it of the necessity of again 
working its forcing pump. Being cold-blooded, that is, 
having the single heart, one throw of the brake suffices 
for a long time. 

In travelling over a clam bed, at low tide, the tremor 
communicated to the fish apprizes it of approaching dan- 
ger; and the nearer the observer advances, the more 
distinctly can he witness the amazing projectile force 
with which the clam drives a little column of water up 
through the sand. 



Fig. 97. 




V0&T 



Explanation of Fig. 97. 

This drawing repre- 
sents the gills and water 
tube of the oyster, which 
differ but very little from 
the respiratory apparatus 
of common salt water 
clams, a, is the orifice 
of the tube referred to in 
the remarks above, into 
which a needle is intro- 
duced ; c, the region of 
the digestive organs; b 
and d, the extensive bor- 
der of gills or lungs. 



This is only part of the contents of the tube. Nothing 
but continued irritation will induce the clam to part with 
the remainder, — which is noticed, in digging, just as the 
shell is exposed to the light. 

By this reserved fund, it can live many days in open 
air. It is by this tube of water that the oyster is kept 
alive in the shops. As the exposure in the open air 
weakens its system, it recruits itself by jetting a drop of 
water through its gills. This drop may be seen morning 
after morning, on a dry board. But when the reservoir 
is wholly exhausted, it opens its shell, fearless of conse- 



If so ; describe the mechampal process, 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 227 

quences, and seeks in despair, wherever it can reach, a 
fountain, to replenish its engine. Thus it languishes, 
and at last dies a protracted death, in search of its ac- 
customed element. 

No class of animals is more wonderful, on the other 
hand, than the amphibious. They live alternately in two 
elements, hearing and seeing tolerably well in both. 
The structure of some of their organs of sense has 
already been considered. But it is not true, as too gene- 
rally believed, that they alternately respire air and water, 
or a mixture of both. They are cold-blooded animals, it 
is true, with a single heart ; as, for example, the frog 
and aquatic lizards. The water seems to be their peculiar 
element, but, after all, they breathe the air exclusively. 
They constitutionally require only a small quantity of 
oxygen, or vital air, to sustain life, and keep the machine- 
ry in operation. They have lungs, but they have but a 
faint resemblance to those having warm blood and a 
double heart. 

Their lungs are merely membranous bags or cylinders, 
which, in their dry, prepared state, appear like bubbles of 
froth. The next extraordinary circumstance is this — that 
breathing is an act depending on the will ; that is, they 
can breathe regularly, at short intervals, for days together, 
or they can stop the respiratory process for hours, or 
perhaps days, and continue equally vigorous. 

Fishes, we have seen, force the water through their 
gills : the same process of forcing air into these membra- 
nous tubes is accomplished, in amphibious animals, by a 
very little additional mechanism — the mouth acts precisely 
like a bellows. The jaws are grooved above and below, 
that they may be air-tight, and a slit, acting like a valve, 
is placed at the root of the tongue, over the wind-pipe, 
leading to the lungs. The mouth is never opened except 
for food. The air is drawn in through very small nos- 
trils, which in the frog and neut are not larger than cam- 
bric needles. The animal slowly draws its mouth full of 
air, and, when sufficiently distended, forces it through 



Do amphibious animals, so called, under the same necessity for un- 

breathe alternately or indifferent- interrupted respiration ? 

ly air or water ? Is this breathing an act of volition? 

Why are not lizards, and other rep- Why are the jaws fitted so closely 

tiles possessing a single heart, together in frogs ? 



228 ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 

the valve, by the skin, which looks like a pouch under 
the lower jaw. 

The lungs, being full, give additional size to the body. 
The abdominal muscles re-act, and slowly press it out 
again ; and thus we have an example of the mode by 
which this class of animals breathe. 

If the frog's mouth be kept open with a prop, it will 
inevitably die, as there is no power by which it can inhale 
air, short of the bellows of its jaws. It requires no phi- 
losophy, after becoming acquainted with these interesting 
facts, to account for their large mouths and broad jaws. 
No other shape or structure would so completely consti- 
tute the bellows. 

Fig. 98. 




Explanation of Fig. 98. 

On either side of c are the nostrils of the frog and toad, indicated by 
dots ; a is the border of the pharynx, the funnel of the food pipe, out oi 
which the tongue seems to protrude ; b is near a slit in the base of that 
organ, leading to the lungs, through which the atmospheric air is forced 
down into the lungs ; d is the point of the tongue, which is represented 
to be in a flaccid condition. When this reptile is taking flies, its princi- 
pal food, the tongue assumes the appearance of a small, round wire, of a 
deep red color. It is darted with such rapidity that the impression made 
on the eye of an observer is like that of a flash of light. All the smaller 
class of saurians, or lizards, feed in a similar manner. At the extremity 
of the chameleon's tongue there is a kind of cup, which opens to receive 
the insect, where it is secured in a twinkling, in the instant of darting it 
out some six or eight inches. 

Neuts', lizards' and the chameleon's lungs are cylin- 
ders, running down the sides of their bodies, the whole 
length ; and as they force in the air precisely by the same 

Cannot they breathe by the mouth? 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 229 

process, it will explain the reason of their appearing fat 
at one time, or thin and lank at another. When irritated, 
or in fear, they blow up their bodies to frightful dimen- 
sions, to appear more formidable, upon the same instinc- 
tive principle that cats, dogs, hedgehogs and fowls bristle 
up their covering at the approach of an enemy superior 
to them in strength.^ 

The different colors with which the chameleon so 
readily dresses itself, depend on this peculiarity of its 
lungs. The skin is covered w r ith an exquisitely fine 
covering, like velvet. If the lungs be filled to a certain 
extent, the swelling of the body erects the fleece, so that 
the manner in w r hich the light strikes it makes the animal 
appear green, white, or of other colors : another blast into 
the lungs gives another inclination to the fleece, and it 
has another tint. When, by irritation, its body is blown 
up to its greatest dimensions, various modifications of 
these colors are exhibited. 

From this tribe of reptiles the first advance is made 
towards endowing animals with the power of producing 
vocal sounds. The w T ater is only capable of propagating 
a vibration, but that with great certainty and strength, and 
nature has constructed an ear suited to the element and 
the habits of all aquatic beings. To have bestowed an 

* Crocodiles and alligators are provided with these very small, deli- 
cately organized membranous lungs, notwithstanding their prodigious 
muscular power. All reptiles are tenacious of life to a wonderful de- 
gree. In tropical regions, during the rainy seasons, and in those parts 
of the world where there is a winter, they" remain in a perfectly torpid 
state, called sleep, till the return of the sun's genial rays. This is a most 
admirable provision for preserving them, when their "proper food cannot 
be had. They require so little oxygen that the lamp of life is just kept 
burning for months together, and the little fat they have accumulated 
serves to keep the digestive organs barely moving the whole time. If 
they are awaken fronTthis state" by an artificial temperature, a voracious 
appetite is immediately manifested ; but the stomach refuses to resume 
its natural function, and' they die in a little time. The author, a few years 
since, exhibited an alligator before a large audience at the Temple, in the 
course of a lecture on vitality, with reference to explaining the condition 
of these animals in a torpid" state, which was handled freely and with 
perfect safety, till the heat of two anthricite stoves, each side of the raised 
platform, unexpectedly roused him, to the surprise and terror of the speak- 
er. The instant his eyes were opened, it was necessary to secure him in 
the envelopes of a baize table-cloth. After the close" of the lecture, a 
piece of meat was given him, at the menagerie, which he seized with 
voracious avidity, but expired with it between his horrible teeth. 



How is it that some reptiles are their size, almost instantly? 
enabled to increase or diminish Is sound propagated in water ? 

20 



230 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 



ear susceptible of receiving the modification of sound, 
would have been superfluous, inasmuch as the modifica- 
tions are alone effected in the vocal box of those breathing 
air. 

The atmosphere is the medium of modified sound : it 
is an elastic medium, which can be put in motion by the 
vibration of solid bodies. It is a medium which, when 
set in motion by a mechanical contrivance of the greatest 
apparent simplicity, transmits the wants of animals, in 
what is denominated a natural cry ; and in man expresses 
not only his wants, his pleasures, and his pains, but all 
his thoughts, — because his voice represents ideas. Lan- 
guage, therefore, is the symbol of thought. 

The voice of all animals remains the same through 
endless generations, unless the vocal apparatus is artifi- 
cially altered. Indeed, the vocal organs are so constituted 
that they admit of little variety in their movements: 
every succeeding class, however, exhibits an additional 
muscle, a bone, or some difference in the shape of the 
tongue, giving it the power of either making one more 
sound than the race below, or some modulation of the 
original tone. Were it not for this progression in the 
contrivance, the voice of all animals would be precisely 
the same/like sounding one note continually on a musical 
instrument. 

Let us examine another curious mode of respiration, 
peculiar to birds. Although there is an external resem- 
blance, in the shape of their bones, to quadrupeds, and 
the muscles which move them are similarly arranged, to 
effect a circle of motions, their structure has reference to 
their wafting themselves through the air. 

In the first place, the long bones are without marrow, 
being hollow tubes, filled with air; these actually have 
openings communicating with the lungs. At their further 
extremities they permit the air to circulate into the ends 
of each feather ; and, lastly, the body has large apart- 
ments exclusively appropriated for the reception of the 
same air. Their lungs, unlike the light, frothy tube of 
reptiles, are spongy and gorged with blood, and totally 
unlike those belonging to any other animal. In the bird, 



Are the lun^s of birds different in tirely through these organs, in 

structure from other animals ? birds ? 

Why is the air allowed to pass en- 



„ 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 



231 



the lungs are open at each end, and are so closely tied 
down to the back bone and ribs that they admit of little 
or no distension or contraction. 

Their breathing is effected in the following manner : 
viz. the air is drawn into the vacuum caused by the 
pressure of the strong muscles of the abdomen ; in other 
words, the weight of the atmosphere forces it in, so that 
the current rushes through the whole length of the lungs, 
where the blood is waiting for its appearance, and passes 
to the extremities of all the bones and feathers. The 
proper change being wrought in the venous blood, it is 
circulated again to the heart ; while the muscles again 
empty the lungs and air cells, contiguous, by a general 
compression of the whole. Here is discoverable the me- 
chanism for producing voice, seen in its elements in the 
frog, improved upon by additional cords and vibrating 



Fig. 99. 




Explanation of Fig". 99. 



A horizontal section of the body of an 
ostrich ; a is the wind -pipe ; b the heart, 
located and surrounded by air, in a cell, 
the apex resting on an hour-glass-shap- 
en cylinder, also rilled with it ; c c, the 
lungs; and e e e e, large air chests. 
These exist in a miniature form in most 
of the birds. It is by the boxing up of 
so much air ia these numerous apart- 
ments that the ostrich is enabled to run 
with such extreme swiftness. As the 
body becomes heated by exercise, the 
air becomes also rarefied, and the longer 
it runs, the lighter and more boundifig 
it is in its step. Its speed far exceeds 
the horse ; and this mammoth bird will 
sometimes continue at the top of its 
speed thirty hours in succession, with- 
out resting, when hunted on the borders 
of its native deserts. 

The reason why wild fowls are able 
to rise so quickly on the wing is be- 
cause the canals are large, by which the air rushes through the body in 
the act of expanding the wings, which is in effect like opening a valve. 
Domestic fowls, from disuse of this apparatus, have the air pipes but par- 
tially developed ; hence they are obliged, ordinarily, to run and flap the 
wings, to force in a volume of air, before the body is specifically lignter ; 
the moment this is effected, they can rise. The movements of the com- 
mon goose, when driven, fully illustrates the operation. 



Explain the peculiarity of the res- 
piratory organization of birds. 
How is the air which has imparted 



vitality to the blood by being 
drawn through the lungs, eon^ 
ducted out of the body agaia ? 



232 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 



cartilages, susceptible of receiving a current of air, in a 
manner a little different, to produce one, two or three 
different tones. 

Lastly, nature has effected respiration by a more com- 
plex piece of mechanism in those animals whose bodies 
are divided into two apartments by a diaphragm. 

A difference of structure does not appear in the air cells 
of the lungs of about forty varieties of animals, including 
man. The only circumstances observable, relate to their 
shape and subdivisions, depending on the configuration of 
the cavity in which they are lodged. The human lungs 
are suspended in the chest, much as they are in brutes, 
by the wind-pipe, and so tied down at the upper part of 
the neck, and so carefully fitted to the dimensions of the 
box in which they are lodged, that no position of the body 
can throw them out of place. There is a right and a left 
lung, perfectly independent of each other, and separated 
by a middle partition.^ 

Fig. 100. 




Explanation of Fig, 100. 

This diagram explains the relations of the vital organs of man. The 
breast bone and the anterior portions of the ribs being removed, shows 
the exact positions of the rignt and left lungs, marked a a. The heart, 
suspended by its vessels, is between them, b b, the right and left divisions 
of the diaphragm, which rise and fall at each inspiration and expiration, 
synch onou sly with the lungs. 

* One lung may be badly diseased, and the other remain perfectly unim- 
paired, many years. A case is recollected in which the left lung was 
entirely destroyed by ulceration. The cavity, however was filled with a 



Are the human lungs similar in 
structure to those we have been 
considering? 

How are they connected with the 



cavity in which they are placed ? 
Can tbey be thrown out of place 
by changing the position of the 
body ? 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 233 

Exactly in the centre of this partition, in quadrupeds, 
the heart lies, but in man it is on the left side, and there- 
fore projects into the cavity of the left lung. They are 
made up of millions of air cells, which are filled at every 
inspiration. The blood, directly from the heart, is thrown 
into them in prodigious quantities, and circulates sc 
minutely that each air cell is completely surrounded by a 
sheet of dark blood. 

VOICE. 

We shall now inspect the contrivance by which sounds 
are produced by animals. 

By voice, animals have the power of making them- 
selves understood to their own species ; and these sounds 
are either articulate or inarticulate. 

Language is an acquired power, having its origin in 
the wants of more than one individual. Man, without 
society, would only utter a natural cry, which sound 
would express nothing but pain. 

Supposing a human being to have been entirely forsaken 
by those of his species, in that stage of infancy when he 
could have no recollection of any thing pertaining to his 
race, his voice would, in essence, remain the cry of an 
infant, only strengthened in tone, at a particular age, by 
the development of the vocal organs to their destined 
size. 

But let two individuals be placed together, but without 
communication or knowledge of the existence of beings 
similar to themselves, the natural cry of each would 
undergo modifications : the one would make a sound, to 
express a particular sensation, which in time would be 

vast quantity of purilent fluid matter which pressed the heart from its 
natural position, so that its apex could be felt pulsating on the right side 
of the chest. 

A captain of the United States Navy died several years ago, at sea, in 
consequence of being wounded in the chest by a duellist. Though the 
ball passed entirely through the body, and the wound healed on one side, 
a constant discharge was kept up from the other. After death, it was 
ascertained that the lung was entirely destroyed; and lying upon the 
diaphragm was an oiled patch, with which thebullet had been covered. 
Nature was exerting herself to wash away the offending irritant through 
the opening, but the powers of the system were exhausted before she had 
accomplished her plan for saving his life. 

How is the heart lodged, with re- What is voice? 

spect to the lungs, in man ? How are sounds divided ? 

20* 



234 ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 

understood by the other : a repetition of the same note 
would be the sign of that sensation in future. 

An additional sensation, having an intimate connexion 
with the first, would require a variation of tone; and this 
would also become a symbol of two sensations. Here, 
then, would be the origin of language. Multiply the 
species, and each new member of the society would 
express some other sensation or want, by another modi- 
fication of the original cry. Here we discover the certain 
commencement of a spoken language. These different 
sounds, becoming classified, constitute a dictionary, in 
which each word is the mark or sign of particular sounds; 
thus, if an individual can imitate the sound, or a series of 
sounds, he masters a language. Let it be remembered 
that man could never arrive to this perfection in sound or 
language if his vocal organs were not differently con- 
structed from brutes. Such is the mechanism of theirs, 
that so many sounds, and no more, can be made ; but in 
man's organs there is no limitation — no sound appreciable 
that he cannot imitate.^ 

THE VOCAL BOX, OR LARYNX. 

Directly under the integuments on the front side of the 
neck is a cartilaginous tube, the trachea^ or wind-pipe, 
built up of a series of narrow strips, which are portions of 
a ring ; therefore it is always kept free and open. At its 
lower end it divides into two branches, going to the lungs 
on either side, but its upper portion is enlarged, just 
under the chin, and finally opens in common with the 
tube of the stomach and mouth. This enlarged part, 
quite prominent in man, is the larynx, or vocal organ. 

* It is not uncommon to be asked why monkeys, ourang outangs, &c. 
cannot talk. In the first place, they have nothing to say. It is hardly 
possible to discover any very striking anatomical difference in the struc- 
ture of their vocal organs from our own. The essential difficulty, there- 
fore, is in the brain ; had they the cerebral organization of man, they 
would have sentiments, and the possession of the intellectual facul- 
ties, as a law of nature, would be accompanied with a corresponding 
power of explaining their ideas by articulate language. 

The larynx of the whale very much resembles the vocal box of some 
quadrupeds. The whale, it may be recollected, has lungs, and breathes 
air, and consequently, in its internal structure, is not a fish. 



Where and what is the trachea ? What is the larynx ? 
How is it formed ? 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 



235 



Several cartilages assist in its formation, viz. the 
thyroid, cricoid, the arytcenoid, and the epiglottis. The 
cricoid is the foundation ; the thyroid is the wall around 
it; the arytenoid are appendages to the back of the cri- 
coid ; and the epiglottis is a valve, opening and closing 
the entrance into the wind-pipe, like the valve of a 
bellows. 



Fig. 101. 



Fig. 102. 





Explanation of Figs. 
101 and 102. 

The five cartilages are, 

1, The epiglottis. 

2, The thyroid cartilage. 
-10 3, The cricoid auxiliary, 
-5 and, 

4, The two arytaenoid 
cartilages. 

5, The two superior horns 
of the thyroid cartilage. 

6, The two inferior horns. 

7, The suspensory liga- 
"6 ment of the os hyoides. 
-6 8, The os hyoides. 

9, The azygos ligament, 
connecting the os hyoides to 
the thyroid cartilage. 

10, The two lateral liga- 
ments connecting the horns 
of the os hyoides to the su- 
perior horns of the thyroid 
cartilage. 

One of these diagrams presents a front and the other a back view of 
the larynx, or vocal box. The bone of the tongue is seen, like half of a 
hoop, marked 8, in both plans. 2 is the front of the thyroid cartilage, 
felt under the skin, protruding in the form of an irregular tumor. The 
wind-pipe is the tube at the bottom of each larynx. The vocal cords, the 
membranes which vibrate to produce sound, as the current of air rushes 
by, are concealed, being placed inside. From the remarks in the text, 
together with the references, a very correct idea will be formed of the 
structure of this curious organ. By blowing through the wind-pipe of 
almost any animal, soon after it is slain, provided the larynx has not been 
injured, the vocal cords may be put in motion, and the sound which is 
produced will bear considerable analogy to the natural voice of the 
animal. 



Within the larynx, and consequently below the valve, 
are four delicate membranes, two on each side, put upon 
the stretch, — being, in fact, like shelves, — their thin 
edges nearly meeting from the opposite sides, so that 



How many cartilages is it compos- What is the epiglottis ? 
edof? 



236 ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 

there is scarcely any space between them. These are the 
vocal cords. 

When the air rushes out from the lungs through the 
wind-pipe, it must obviously pass through the larynx ; in 
doing which it strikes the tense edges of the cords, and 
produces a vibration. This vibratory motion given to the 
current of air produces sound. In the cavities of the 
bones of the face, forehead, and nose, its power is increas- 
ed, and in the mouth it undergoes further modifications, 
and ultimately becomes articulate language. The teeth, 
tongue, lips, nose and fauces have each an influence in 
the production of articulate sounds. Hence grammarians 
have arranged the human voice under the appropriate 
divisions of guttural, nasal, dental, and labial sounds, 
expressive of the agency which each of these organs 
exerts on the original tone. 

Shrillness or roughness of voice depends on the diame- 
ter of the larynx, — its elasticity, lubricity, and the force 
with which the expired air is propelled through the rima 
glottidis, or slit-like chink between the vocal cords. 

Because the larynx is smaller in women, and more 
elastic, their voice is of a different character. The break- 
ing of the voice, vox rauca, noticeable in boys at a 
particular age, depends partly on the enlargement of the 
apartments within the bones, which generally takes place 
at the important crisis of their lives when the whole 
constitution undergoes a sudden change. 

But the mechanism of voice would have been incom- 
plete, were there not a number of exceedingly delicate 
muscles, which graduate the diameter of the narrow slit 
through which the sound escapes into the mouth. Un- 
consciously, they effect the requisite contractions, forever 
varying, according to the rapidity, intensity, or strength 
of the voice, in singing, conversation, or declamation. 

Finally, the larynx is a musical wind instrument, of the 
reeded kind, on the principle of the hautboy. The nearness 
of the vocal cords to each other resembles that instrument 



Where are the vocal cords ? On what does the shrillness of the 

How is sound produced in the la- voice depend ? 

rynx? Of what service are the muscles 

How is the strength of the voice about the neck, in relation to 

increased ? voice ? 

How is the voice modulated? Is the larynx a musical instrument 

How are sounds classified by gram- in effect ? 

marians ? 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 237 

precisely. All the tones of reed instruments are effected 
by finger-holes, but the tones of the human voice are 
varied by the extrinsic and intrinsic muscles, which 
shorten or elongate the vocal tube. Thus the same 
result is produced by this process — increasing or dimi- 
nishing the diameter of the larynx — that is accomplished 
in the clarionet, bassoon, flute, and hautboy by a graduat- 
ed scale of finger-holes. 

Is not this another beautiful mechanical evidence of the 
existence of a Being superior to ourselves ? 



VENTRILOQUISM. 

At a period not very remote, physiologists entertained 
an opinion that persons possessing the ventriloquial power 
of imitating the voices of men and animals, were peculiar 
in their vocal organization ; it has been satisfactorily 
ascertained, however, that such is not the fact. Almost 
any one may acquire the tact of speaking in a tone widely 
different from that which is familiarly denominated his 
own. By continual practice, the individual soon discovers 
the possibility of articulating words with a very limited 
motion of the lips. Those, therefore, who become expert 
in vocal imitations, appear to be perfectly silent. Nasal 
sounds are most easily produced ; but the labials, to a 
certain extent, are very well conducted by the soft palate, 
or faucal arch, at the top of the throat. With regard to 
the supposed innate ability of professed performers to 
throw the voice wherever they choose, it is an entire 
deception: they contrive, by various modes, rarely sus- 
pected at the time, to divert or distract the attention of 
by-standers, so ingeniously, that the point from whence 
the voice appears to issue is entirely a deception of the 
imagination. 

I once heard a gentleman lecture in Boston upon the 
subject of acoustics, and, in illustration of some principle, 
he took up a flute and assumed the attitude of one play- 
ing. The application of the lips to the blowing hole, the 
natural movement of his fingers, together with the accom- 
paniment of a plaintive air, impressed the audience with 



238 ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 

the truth of his proposition. When, in the course of 
twenty minutes after, he told them that he had not sound- 
ed a single note on the instrument, and that he could not 
play a tune, and, moreover, assured them that it was a 
successful deception he had practised upon their eyes and 
ears, the most perfect of our organs of senses, they ex- 
pressed their utter astonishment. The air was played by 
a man, behind a curtain, in one corner of the hall. This 
explains sufficiently well the ease with which we may be 
deceived under circumstances of an excited imagination, 
and also demonstrates the little reliance to be placed on 
the senses of hearing and seeing when an attempt is made, 
by a skilful deceiver, to influence the judgment through 
their instrumentality. 

To imitate the songs of birds, the guttural variations 
of the mocking-bird, the chirp of squirrels, the hum of 
the bee, &c, a small, oval, metallic frame is held between 
the teeth. The outer edge is grooved, t'hat the teeth may 
keep it firmly in the line of the current of air blown 
through it. Edgeway, stretched from the longest diame- 
ter of this, is a narrow silk ribbon, which vibrates very 
delicately. The slightest variation of the labial orifice 
produces a corresponding alteration of tone; and in this 
way a vast variety of appreciable sounds are imitated. 
The instrument is so small that it may be thrust aside by 
the tongue instantly, or replaced at pleasure. 

Occasionally, boys succeed in imitating the sound pro- 
duced by letting off a current of steam. There is one in 
Boston whose imitation is so perfect, that, were he to 
exert himself, a whole multitude would be alike impressed 
with the idea of the rapid approach of a locomotive en- 
gine. 

Alexander Paris, Esq. informed the writer that he saw 
a slave in Virginia, who was so perfect in ventriloquial 
exhibitions, that he imitated the compound music of a 
very distant drum and fife. 

In the midst of a very great collection of people on 
Boston Common, who were collected on the evening of 
the 4th of July, the present season, a country lad so pain- 
fully imitated the cryings and moanings of a distressed 
infant, somewhere under foot, that every one involuntarily 
looked with deep anxiety for the little sufferer. 

Another class of vetriloquial imitations consists in 
suddenly withdrawing the finger from the mouth when 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 239 

in the act of compressing a volume of air. Thus, the 
sounds like those of drawing a cork from a bottle, sawing 
wood, throwing heavy blocks of wood upon the floor, &c, 
are made, and reproduced, with rapidity. 

Ventriloquism, therefore, instead of being a peculiar 
property of a few individuals, of different countries, is an 
imitative art, which may be acquired by almost any person, 
with a moderate degree of practice. 



THE VISCERA, 

OR SPLANCHNOLOGY. 



THE FOOD-PIPE, OR (ESOPHAGUS. 

This is a fleshy tube, going from the back of the mouth 
to the stomach, through the chest, lying in the neck 
behind the wind-pipe. Its upper portion is called the 
pharynx, or fauces, and its lower, the cardiac extremity, 
terminating in the stomach. 

The common opening or coalescing of the wind-pipe 
and ossophagus constitute the 'pharynx. By looking into 
the back part of the throat, an arch is noticed, of a singu- 
lar construction. In reality, there are two of them, united 
at the top, but receding from each other at the base. In 
the intermediate space between the legs of these arches, 
on either side, the amydaloid glands are placed, usually 
called almonds of the ears. As a morsel is rolled, by the 
retraction of the tongue, through this gateway, the upper 
pendulous, fleshy knob in the centre, uvula, falls down, 
like a port-cullis, and thus secures the food. In passing 
through the space intervening between the arches, it 
presses against the amydaloid glands, which pour out a 

What is splanchnology ? What prevents food from falling 

Describe the oesophagus. into the lungs ? 

What is its relation to the trachea Where are the faucel arches 1 

or wind-pipe ? What is the office of the amydaloid 

Where is trie cardiac termination? glands? 
What is the pharynx? 



240 ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 

fluid to moisten it, that there may be no friction in its 
progress down the oesophagus into the stomach. When 
this act is complete, the front arch re-opens, involuntarily, 
to be in readiness for another portion. 

By the closing down of the epiglottis, (an elastic valve, 
lying directly over the opening of the larynx,) the food 
slides over and falls into the appropriate tube. When, 
accidentally, the valve gets partially propped open, in the 
act of swallowing, so that the smallest possible quantity 
of either a solid or a fluid gets into the vocal box, a 
convulsive cough instantly ensues, and continues, gene- 
rally, till the foreign matter is forced from its wrong 
lodgment. 

The uvula, or central fleshy pap, is occasionally ex- 
ceedingly elongated, owing to the loss of tone in its 
muscular tissue. Under such circumstances, it reaches 
low down into the faucal region, and, by constant irrita- 
tion, produces a severe cough, which, if not relieved by 
the excision of the uvula, in case astringent gargles fail 
to make it retract, ultimately causes an extensive inflam- 
mation of the lining membrane of the lungs. Thus, by a 
sympathetic action, a pulmonary consumption may be 
induced. 

THYMUS GLAND. 

Infants and young children possess a singular gland, 
located just behind the top of the breast bone, which has 
the appellation of thymus gland. In adults it is obliterat- 
ed ; hence it is supposed to be serviceable only in the 
early stages of our existence. 

THORACIC DUCT. 

Quite low in the abdomen is found a white, exquisitely 
delicate tube, which runs upward by the side of the spine, 
and finally terminates, by communicating with a large 
vein in the angle between the neck and shoulder, on the 
left side. All the nutritious substance which has been 
collected from the food in the intestinal tube, — now called 
chyle, which is white like milk, — is conducted to this 

Why is a convulsive cough pro- Where is the thoracic duct, and 

duced when food falls into the what is its office ? 

larynx ? What is chyle ? 

What is said of the thymus gland ? 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 241 

thoracic duct, and thence carried on to be poured directly 
into the circulation, to become blood. 

ABDOMEN. 

Bounded by the diaphragm above, the pelvic bones 
below, and the muscles at the sides, the abdomen is the 
most capacious of all the cavities. Its lining membrane 
is the peritonceum. Various organs, principally subser- 
vient to digestion, are contained within it. They are the 
following. 

OMENTUM. 

Vulgarly, the omentum is the caul, a sort of apron 
lying in front of the intestines, suspended mainly from 
the stomach.* 1 

LIVER. 

Being the largest and heaviest viscus in the body, the 
liver has also a vast influence on the condition of the 
whole. It is divided into right and left lobes. The right 
is the largest, and occupies the right side, under the ribs. 
The left lobe lies partly over the stomach, in the other 
region. Its use is to secrete bile.t 

GALL BLADDER. 

This is attached to the under side of the liver, shaped 
like a shot-pouch, and contains between one and two 

* It is generally supposed that the sudden twinging pain, known as a 
stick in the side, is caused in consequence of the omentum being pinched 
by the vermicular motion of the intestines. 

t At birth, the liver fills considerably more than half of the abdominal 
cavity ; but soon after, it appears to diminish in size. 

This important viscus, in a state of disease, is extremely painful. 
Drinkers of spirituous liquors are fatally predisposed to a derangement 
of its functions. 

Poultrymen, in some parts of Europe, have discovered a method of 
producing an enormous schirrous enlargement of this bile-secreting organ 
m geese, ducks and turkies, which is esteemed by gourmands to be a 
delicate dish, unsurpassed by any thing else in modern cookery. 

Where are the contents of the duct this cavity called ? 

conducted into the circulation ? Describe the omentum. 

Does the chyle become blood ? Where is the liver placed, and what 

What are the abdominal bounda- are its peculiar functions ? 

ries ? With what organ is the gall-bladder 

What is the linine membrane of connected ? 

21 



242 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 
Fia 103. 




Explanation of Fig. 103. 

In this view of the abdomen, d is the ^all-bladder, lying: on the under 
side of the liver, the dark mass to which it is attached ; h is the coronary 
artery, which supplies the stomach, a, b, c, with blood. The curve of the 
stomach is well shown, e c, the arteries which supply the caul, marked 
i i. which falls down from the front of the stomach, over the intestines, 
like an apron ; g; a vessel of the liver. The pancreas is behind the 
stomach. 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 243 

ounces of gall, which is carried to it, as a place of deposit, 
from the liver. A long slender pipe extends from it to 
the duodenum, the first portion of the intestines, into 
which it pours the bile. The use of the bile is to stimu- 
late the intestines, in order to keep them at work.^ 

SPLEEN. 

Anatomists have not discovered the function of this 
organ. Generally, however, it is admitted to be essen- 
tially serviceable to the stomach. The color is red, some- 
what like the liver, broad as the palm of the hand, and 
one or two inches thick. It is in contact with the stomach, 
in the left side. 

PANCREAS. 

Behind the stomach, lying directly across the spine, is 
the pancreas, a narrow gland, from eight to ten inches 
long, which secretes a fluid analogous to the saliva. 
Through a duct, it is carried onward, to be mixed with 
the bile in the intestine. It is regarded as an auxiliary 
to digestion. 

KIDNEYS. 

One of these glands is placed on each side, in the loins, 
near the spine, a little above the hips. From the trunk 
of the aorta, the great artery of the body, two large 
branches are given off, nearly at right angles, to the 
kidneys. A quantity of blood is therefore sent directly 
into them, from which the urine is separated, and after- 
wards forced through the ureters, — two tubes of the size 
of a writing quill, ten inches or more in length, — into 
the under and back part of the bladder. 

* In all the carnivorous animals, this sac is large. Serpents and fishes, 
both of which swallow their food whole, require a prodigious quantity of 
bile. The moment it has entered the stomach, the gall-bladder, in them, 
particularly, begins to fill, and in the course of two days seems full, almost 
to bursting. When the mass has dissolved, and becomes converted into 
chyme, and the intestinal motion is sufficiently strong, then the gall- 
bladder, being no longer called upon for an extra" quantity of stimulating 
fluid, at once diminishes in size. 

Where are its contents carried ? From whence do they secrete their 

Of what service is the bile ? fluid ? 

How many kidneys ? 



244 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 
Fig. 104. 




Explanation of Fig. 104. 

In this, a and 6 show the tendinous part of the diaphragm or partition 
between the chest and abdomen : d, the kidney, with its fellow opposite ; 
f, the descending aorta; h, an artery given off for the intestinal tube; 
i t where the great artery divides, to send a branch to each leg; g, the 
ascending great vein, conveying blood to the right side of the heart ; c, 
the capsule, so called, belonging to the kidney, the use of which is un- 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 245 

known ; n, the ureter, a tube which conveys the urine from the kidney to 
the under side of the bladder, where it terminates. The right ureter is 
seen on that side, also terminating in the bladder, k. m, I, are arteries ; 
o is a small artery, which runs down, on the bone, into the pelvis. 

The urine is separated from the blood by the extremi- 
ties of the arteries within the substance of the kidney. 
Having remained a while in the bladder, it excites a 
desire to void it, — an action effected chiefly by the mus- 
cular fibres of the bladder itself, assisted by the abdominal 
muscles. It is prevented from retrograding from the 
bladder to the kidneys, by a valvular structure within, 
continually closed by the presence of the fluid against the 
valve.^ 

STOMACH. 

Just below the diaphragm, lying nearly horizontally 
across the top of the abdomen, is the stomach, having the 
shape of a shot-pouch, — being large at the extremity on 
the left side, and small where it reaches the right, under 
the margin of the liver. It presents a curve in front, and 
a shorter one on the back side, where it embraces the 
spine. 

At the entrance of the cesophagus, the food tube from 
the mouth, at the large end of the orifice, is called the 
cardiac orifice, because it was supposed by the early 
anatomists to be near the heart. Through this the food 
enters the stomach ; and where it makes its exit, into the 
beginning of the intestine, at the other extremity, the 
opening is the pyloric orifice. A muscle surrounds the 
neck of the stomach, on the inside, which holds a control 
over the contents, allowing it to pass onward, or confining 
it within, according to its state of preparation for diges- 
tion. 

* Anatomists have indulged the opinion for a long time, that there is a 
more direct communication between the stomach and bladder than has 
yet been discovered. It seems impossible, say they, that so great a 
quantity of fluid as may be voided in naif an hour, could have been drawn 
by the kidneys, alone, from the circulating blood. INot withstanding the 
offer of a libe'ral premium to the fortunate discoverer of the mode of ac- 
tion, if any exists, different from what the science of anatomy has already 
displayed, no one has yet been successful in the research. 

In what part of the abdomen is the Why does not the food pass onward 

stomach placed ? directly through it, into the intes- 

What is its shape ? tines ?" 
What name has its lower orifice ? 

21* 



246 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 



MECHANISM 
BIRDS AND 



OF THE STOMACH IN 
RUMINANT ANIMALS. 



By comparative anatomy, we discover that there are 
several varieties in the mechanical structure of this only 
partially understood organ, in the inferior races, adapted 
to the circumstances of their physical condition. 

The membranous stomach is found in all the carnivo- 
rous or flesh-eating animals and fishes, very similar in 
character to our own. If any thing, they secrete, perhaps, 
a more copious supply of gastric juice in a given time. 
As this is one of the most powerful antiseptics in nature, 
putrid aliment loses its rancid odor nearly as soon as it 
is brought in contact with it. Many animals prefer 
carrion to freshly-slain meats, because it is more easily 
digested. Hence dogs, crows, vultures, &c, instinctively 
select food in a putrid state. Crocodiles not unfrequent- 
ly drag their prey about under water till the putrefac- 
tive process commences. Gourmands, as exhibited in 
those, for example, who are in the habit of keeping mut- 
ton and venison till decomposition begins to take place, 
lbefore it is considered fit to be cooked, practise upon the 
same principle. There is less labor imposed upon the 
teeth, and more consequently devolves upon the stomach 
inasmuch as the gastric juice corrects its rancidity. 

Fig. 105. 

Explanation of Fig. 105. 
This is the receiving stomach of a 
fish called whiting. It will be ob 
served that it belongs to the class of 
membranous stomachs, and that it is 
an appendage, as it were, of the in- 
testine, standing out almost at a right 
angle from the main canal. With a 
very few exceptions, all the fishes 
possess this kind of receiving pouch, 
into which smaller fishes and other 
food are taken whole. As fast as por- 
tions become softened, they go back 
again through the strait by which the 
mass was received, but, instead of re- 
turning to the mouth, make a short 
turn down into the intestine. In the first inch or two of this, where 
chymification is effected, a cluster of fleshy, red spikes are seen. These 




;; 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 247 

are tinged with blood, from which the gastric juice is secreted in great 
quantities. While digestion is going on, and till the membranous stomach 
is completely emptied, they remain erectile, but as soon as the whole has 
disappeared, they become pale and flaccid. If a fish is examined imme- 
diately on being caught, these spleens or gastric juice-providing organs 
will be seen in these several conditions, according to the fulness or 
diminished volume of the contents of the neighboring stomach. This 
contrivance, therefore, bears some resemblance to the functions of the 
membranous stomach or paunch of the ruminants. The intestine is 
remarkably short in all the fishes, as it is in all carnivorous animals. 

Granivorous birds are furnished with a muscular 
stomach of a peculiar construction. As they are wholly 
without a dental apparatus for comminating their food, — 
a preparatory step of vast importance to animals possess- 
ing the membranous stomach, — the gizzard, in effect, is a 
mill, in which, whatever is taken into the crop, drops 
down into it at regular intervals, to be pulverized and 
mixed with the secretions elaborated in it, and finally 
converted into a soft paste. This, then, as will be readily 
understood, actually changes the ingesta into the same sort 
of nutritious matter that is found in the first kind of stom- 
ach, only the result is effected by a different machine. The 
crop is only a receiving organ or hopper, or, in other 
words, a store-house, which is filled from time to time, as 
circumstances and the necessities of the bird may require. 
In the crop, the kernels of corn are moistened, and there- 
fore softened a little, — a favorable preparation, because less 
muscular force will be required to reduce it to the neces- 

Fig. 106. 

Explanation of Fig. 106. 

This engraving illustrates the 
internal structure of the gizzard. 
a is the canal through which the 
softened food passes into the cen- 
tre of this powerful muscular ma- 
chine, b snows the deep lines and 
ridges which cut and divide the 
mass, in order to expose every part 
to the action of the organ as it 
collapses upon the contents with- 
in, c indicates the division of one 
of the three thick muscles, spoken 
of in the text. 

The ostrich has commonly been 
regarded as the most stupid* of all 
the birds, and the least benefited by the organs of sense, because, in a 
state of captivity, it swallows buttons, nails, v\atch-keys, glass, &c, 
indifferently. The poor biped is actually driven to this sad necessity, 
for want of gravel, which menagerie keepers seem not to think of. All 
these hard things immediately pass into the gizzard, and there are made 
use of as teeth to mull and comminate the food. 




248 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 



sary degree of fineness to become chyme. Although the 
gizzard is embraced by three short, immensely strong 
muscles, which, acting in concert, diminish the volume of 
the organ so much as to compress whatever may be within, 
like a vice, were it not replenished with particles of 
gravel quite frequently, the bird could not live. These 
are its teeth ; and by the combined action of the external 
muscular straps, the gastric juice and the trituration of 
the stony particles, even needles, lancets, and the points 
of small nails, are made so smooth that the pylorus will 
admit them to pass into the intestine, which it would not 
do, were the canal liable to be injured by their progress. 

Pigeons have an unusual enlargement of the calibre of 
the oesophagus, or swallow, where it joins the crop, at the 
season of rearing their young. This is a most admirable 
provision, for the food, becoming softened by remaining a 
short time there, is precisely fitted to the feeble digestive 
powers of the unfledged young. Both parents unite in 



Fig. 107. 

Explanation of Fig. 107. 

The whole of the digestive 

^ apparatus of the pigeon is here 

delineated, a is the enlarge- 
..X ment of the oesophagus, into 

which the young pigeon's head 
enters, and at b the bill passes 
...Q through a narrowing of the tube, 

into c, the crop, where the food 
has become considerably soften- 
.... d e( * by the heat of the body and 
the secretions of the organ, and 
from which the little bird feeds 
' several times a day. d are a 

'"& congeries of glands, embracing 

the lower part of the crop, reach- 
ing to the gizzard, similar in 
office to the spleen in other ani- 
— .Jp mals. It is supposed that they 
I I contain blood, from which the 

gastric fluid is secreted. At e, 
" (J below a circular muscle, a kind 
/f** " of pylorus, are the stomach 
glands, or little spleens, which 
appear to be appropriated ex- 
clusively to the gizzard, and probably elaborate a more powerful solvent 
juice, f is the gizzard, and g the termination of the intestinal canal. 
The lacteal vessels, — those which convey the chyle into the circulation, 
are dispersed throughout the entire tract of the intestines. In the above 
diagram, the gizzard,./", is represented as separated from the craw, c, to 
show the manner in which the muscles embrace its lower portion. As a 
whole, it is regarded by anatomists as a very curious piece of mechanism. 




ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 249 

the task of providing for their helpless offspring, by allow- 
ing them to pick their daily sustenance directly from 
their own throats. 

Bony stomachs are found in the worms : lobsters, 
crabs, and the like class of animals, whose skeletons are 
thrown outside the flesh, instead of being in the centre of 
the muscular system, have similarly organized stomachs. 
They, too, are destitute of teeth in the jaws, though well 
supplied with them at the internal entrance of the stom- 
ach. Whatever is there introduced is instantly subjected 
to the forcible manducation, or rather kneading operation, 
of these active auxiliary agents. By a law of their nature, 
once a year, the shell is necessarily cast off, and a new 
one is developed within a very few days. At the same 
time this important change to their physical welfare is 
going on, the gastric teeth are also shed, and new ones 
take their places, tipped with enamel, and subject, as the 
former set were, to the unceasing control of muscles 
which force them to action. 

Nothing, in the estimation of an anatomist, is more 
admirable than the mechanical contrivance and harmo- 
nious operation of the compound stomach of graminivorous 
animals ; such as cows, sheep, deer and several others. 
These are called ruminants, because they chew the cud. 
They not only have the membranous sac or receiving 
organ, as in man and birds, but, superadded, are three 
others, making four in the whole. 

However much may have been swallowed in the course 
of the day, not a particle is permitted to pass into the 
second stomach till it has been properly masticated in the 
mouth. Thus, when a sufficient mass has been collected for 
future rumination, these social animals quietly lie down. 
By an act of volition, a mouthful of this crude food instant- 
ly runs up the oesophagus, which the tongue presses into 
the line of the grinders. With them, without doubt, the 
principal pleasure of eating consists in chewing the cud. 
When sufficiently mulled in the form of a ball, it is re- 
swallowed into the same place from whence it was raised ; 
but, instead of stopping there, as in the first instance, the 
orifice leading into the second stomach, at this particular 
juncture, opens to receive it, and, the moment the portal is 
passed, the gate closes, before any thing in the neighbor- 
hood can possibly gain ingress. The same process is 
repeated till the whole is regularly inducted to the second 



250 ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 

apartment. In this, it is mixed with water and the secre- 
tions, and very much softened and diluted, — a preparatory 
step for its entrance^ into the third, where it is further 
changed by the addition of bile, and divided into portions, 
each of which, on arriving at the fourth sac, of a thin, 
milky consistence, is there turned into curd, or chyme, 
very similar in taste and appearance to the dairy curd 
before being pressed. It is this fourth division of the 
ruminant stomach which farmers take from calves, under 
the name of rennet, to curdle milk for making cheeses.^ 

Fig. 108. 




Explanation of Fig . 108. 

In this engraving, we have endeavored to represent the compound 
stomach of a sheep. There is not much difference in the arrangement or 
structure of the compound stomach of ruminant animals, generally, from 
this, provided they possess horns. If a ruminant, as the rabbit and camel, 
for example, are destitute of those appendages, they have only one pre- 
paratory stomach, performing the functions of the two first, marked a and 
b in this plan. The long tube at g is the oesophagus, or food-pipe, lead- 
ing from the top of the throat to the receiving stomach, a, from whence 
the food is raised again in balls to the mouth, and, when re-swallowed, 

* Quantities of hair are not unfrequently found in the maws, or first 
stomach, which cattle swallow by licking each other in the spring, when 
they are shedding their coats. These are sometimes enormously large, 
but, not being permitted by the pyloric, constrictor muscles to pass into 
th'e next stomach, because they do not give the true countersign, — that is, 
produce the right kind of sensation, they are retained where they were 
first received, for years, becoming, by being constantly rolled about, ex- 
cessively hard, compact balls, 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 251 

the mouthful passes directly into b, through an opening between the two 
sacs which closes as soon as the morsel enters. This stomach b contains 
the pockets for holding water in the camel : this is the part called tripe, 
and, by farriers, the king^s hood; and a, the first stomach, the paunch. 
From the second stomach b the food enters, through a small aperture, into 
c, the manifolds, or third stomach, from whence it is forced into d, the 
fourth stomach, also familiarly known as the rennet : e is the beginning 
of the duodenum, or first portion of the small intestines, where the bile 
and other fluids are poured in to dilute the contents and otherwise facili- 
tate digestion. In all these animals there is an amazing length of intes- 
tinal tube : it is nearly fifty feet long in the sheep. 

In configuration and general arrangement, the stomach 
of the camel is very analogous, being also a ruminant. 
Destined, however, to live in those sultry, arid countries 
where water cannot be found, only at very distant stages; 
and as they are the servants of man, by which he main- 
tains an intercourse with his fellow man in nomadic life, 
roaming over vast tracts of scorching deserts of sand, the 
wonderful mechanism of this patient animal's second 
stomach enables it to endure exposure to the burning sun, 
days in succession, where no other being would long 
survive. 

The inner surface of the hood, as it is sometimes called, 
or second stomach, of the ox, is arranged into small square 
pits : when prepared by slight maceration, the divisions 
or walls of these cells, faintly resembling the plan of the 
partitions in honey-comb, become quite distinct and prom- 
inent : this is tripe, a familiar culinary dish. The same 
system of arrangement exists in the camel, only the cells 
are vastly deeper, and consequently more capacious. 
Each one of these pockets has a constrictor muscle round 
its margin, acting independently of all the rest. When 
the camel, therefore, takes in a sufficient stock of water 
for a long journey, it is packed away for future use, in the 
following manner : — As each draught swallowed enters 
through the doorway from the first stomach, it runs into 
one of the cells till it becomes sufficiently distended. 
The circular marginal muscle then closes up the top, 
much as the mouth of a sac is drawn together by a cord. 
A second is now filled in the same way; then a third, 
fourth, and so on, till the whole are completely supplied 
and well secured. When thus packed, no resistance is 
offered to the food, which can pass along through a cen- 
tral line as it did before any water was taken in. When 
the necessities of the system require, one of these bottles 
opens itself, and pours its contents into the common 



252 ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 

receptacle, where it dilutes the food, and from whence 
the absorbents conduct it through the body, to be exhaled 
upon the surface as insensible perspiration, and otherwise 
disposes of it, as the economy of their organization may- 
require. Ordinarily, only one cell empties itself at a 
time, unless there is a positive necessity for it. The camel, 
however, has no sort of control over them in regard to 
this part of the process. 

Water, thus stored in the s,tomach of a camel, will keep 
perfectly sweet, without undergoing any apparent change, 
an indefinite period of time. 

When all other sources of supply have failed, the 
Arab, reluctant as he may be to part with a friend, on 
whose ability to travel over deserted regions the preser- 
vation of his life depends, kills the unconscious beast, and 
slakes his own parching thirst with the reserved fund he 
may find in these beautifully-arranged aquatic reservoirs. 

INTESTINES. 

With a little variation, the whole extent of the intes- 
tinal tube is six times the length of the body, except in 
infancy, when it averages eight times the height of the 
child. 

It is divided into small and large intestines. The small 
one is further divided into, first, the duodenum, only about 
a foot long, commencing at the stomach ; — into this portion 
the bile and pancreatic juice is delivered : secondly, the 
jejunum, coiled up nearly round the navel : and, thirdly, 
the ileon, the last part of this intestine, joining the ccecum, 
or beginning of the large tract. Usually, the diameter 
of this tube is not far from one inch. 

Secondly, the large intestine is divided into the caecum, 
— a large, irregular, membranous sac, with a valve that ob- 
structs the return of whatever may have once passed it ; 
the colon, about two inches in diameter, lying near the 
hip, at the bottom of the abdomen, on the left side, but 
ascending in a broad curve towards the stomach, crosses 
the spine, and dips down into the right side, describing 
an arch — hence this particular part is called the arch of 
the colon. Finally, the rectum is the last division, a foot 
long, terminating externally. 

How are the intestines divided? Where is that portion called duo- 

denum ? 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 



253 



The inside is beset with the sharp folds of the inner 
membrane, in the form of shelves, exceedingly numerous, 
which are termed valvule conniventes.* Their express 
office is to prevent a too rapid exit of the food, in its 
descent, before all its nutritious substance has been taken 
by the lac teals. 



9717 4 




Fig. 109. 

Explanation of Fig. 109. 

1, The oesophagus, or swallow 
perforating 

2, The left opening of the dia- 
phragm. 

3, The cardiac orifice of the 
stomach. 

4, The small curvature of the 
stomach. 

5 j The great curvature of the 
-18 stomach. 
^12 6, The fundus of the stomach. 

7, The pyloric orifice. 
-12 8, The duodenum, divided into 
L — -18 three portions. 

9, The ascending, 

10, The transverse, and 

11, The descending, portion. 
19 12, The jejunum, forming three 

fifths of the small intestines, dis- 
tinguished from the ilium in being 
thicker, more vascular, larger, and 
having more valves. 

13, The ilium, forming less than two fifths of the small intestines, and 
terminating in the caecum, having two valves at the entrance. 

14, The caecum, the first of the large intestines, situated in the right, 
having attached to it 

15, The appendix vermiformis. The caecum terminating in 

16, The ascending portion of the colon, which directs its course from 
the caecum towardslhe stomach, connected to the right kidney by a fold 
of the peritonaeum. 

17, The arch of the colon, traversing the abdomen beneath the stom- 
ach. 

18, The descending portion of the colon, directing its course towards 
the left region, connected to the left kidney by a fold of the peritonaeum. 

19, The sigmoid flexure of the colon, situated m the left iliac region, 
and terminating in 

20, The rectum. 

* Within the intestinal tube of the great basking-shark, a monstrous, 
though inoffensive, inhabitant of the ocean, there is a thin membrane jut- 
ting out from the wall of the canal, which winds, apparently, thousands 
of times around it, precisely like a flight of winding stairs. This large 
animal, between thirty and forty feet long, feeds exclusively on marine 
vegetables, — such, principally, as are torn up by the force of storms. 
Prodigious quantities are taken into the stomach when the fish has an 
opportunity of gorging it. A full supply is not always at hand, and 



Explain the economy of the valvular apparatus of the intestines ? 

22 



254 ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 



MESENTERY. 

A duplication or fold of the peritonaeum, drawn out, 
as it were, from the spine, like a ruffle, is the mesentery, 
on the border of which the intestines adhere. By this 
they are supported, and kept in place. 

Nearly in the centre, between where the mesentery 
attaches itself to the spine and the intestine, are the 
mesenteric glands, through which the chyle passes in its 
way to the thoracic duct. 

Digestion. 

Perhaps no animal process has more deeply engaged 
the attention of physiologists than digestion. The fol- 
lowing remarks embrace, in a few words, all that is 
known upon the subject. 

Soon after the food has been admitted into the stomach, 
considerably softened by the saliva of the mouth and 
throat, the extremely small arteries spread in the lining 
membrane of the stomach throw out a fluid which is 
called the gastric juice, which, in addition to the muscular 
action of the stomach, converts the whole mass into a 
grayish paste. It is rolled forward to the pylorus, the 
place of passage into the intestine, where there is mixed 
with it the bile from the gall-bladder, and the juice from 
the pancreas, both of which dilute it still more. The 
muscular fibres of the first portion being strong, it agitates 
and rolls it about till it assumes the appearance of a thick 
milky fluid, of the consistence of cream. 

This part of the digestive process, in the first portion of 
the intestine, is termed chymification, and the substance 
itself chyme. 

By the peristaltic and vermicular action of the intestine, 

nature, practising invariably upon the strictest rules of economy, intro- 
duced this immensely-long screw to prevent the too rapid descent of the 
food. With this simple mechanical plan, it must, necessarily, in follow- 
ing the spiral, move thousands of feet before any portion is voided. Hav- 
ing been exposed, therefore, to a vast extent of absorbing surface, (the 
membrane being thickly studded with lacteal vessels,) every particle of 
nutrition which it is possible to extract from the passing mass is care- 
fully appropriated. 

What is attached to the mesentery ? What else besides this juice is mix- 
Where are the mesenteric glands ? ed with the food in the stomach '? 
From whence comes the gastric What is chymification ? 
juice ? Where is chyle found ? 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 



255 



it is carried onward, inch by inch, interrupted by the 
valves, which throw it from side to side, till every particle 
is brought into direct contact with the mouths of the lac- 
teals everywhere presented. Thus a prodigious extent 
of absorbent surface is presented to it, through the entire 
course of nearly thirty feet. 

Thus, the further the chyme advances, the more close- 
ly and certainly is its valuable part taken up by the 
countless millions of lacteal vessels. They terminate in 
the mesenteric glands, where it remains a little time, but 
for what purpose is not precisely understood, and then, by 
another set of ducts, the fluid is conveyed into the thora- 

Fig. no. 




Explanation of Fig. 110. 

A portion of the thoracic duct, marked T D above, and T D below, 
lying in front and in contact with the spine S. By the side of I I is seea 
a portion of intestine attached to the mesentery, a kind of membranous 
ruffle, around the border of which the entire tube of the intestine is fas- 
tened. L L show a lacteal vessel running from the inside of the intes- 
tine, charged with a milky fluid which is conducted into the mesenteric 
glands, seen lying between the two folds of that membrane. In these, 
the chyle is essentially changed in character, and perhaps receives addi- 
tional fluid from the gland itself. From these, the fluid next passes on 
through the excretory ducts M M, which join the main trunk of the tho- 
racic duct. 



How is food carried along the tube ? 

Where are the lacteals ? 

Haye the mesenteiic glands any 



thing to do in changing the char- 
acter of the chyle that passes 
through them ? 



256 ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 

cic duct, to be afterwards carried into a vein in the neck, 
to be mixed with the blood, and to become blood. 

The final cause, therefore, of digestion, is to elaborate 
a material for making blood, from which the whole system 
is renewed and sustained. Whatever is useless finally 
passes onward into the large intestine, which, in effect, is 
a storehouse, in which its stay is temporary, depending 
on the health, habit and condition of the individual. 

Three hours after the food is masticated, as a general 
rule, it passes through the various changes which have 
been described. 

Three coats are easily shown in the walls of the 
stomach and intestines, viz. the peritoneal, the muscular, 
and the mucous. The muscular is a series of fleshy 
fibres, fine as sewing-thread, winding round the cylinder; 
longitudinal fibres are also discoverable ; hence there are 
two particular motions in the intestine. By the contrac- 
tion of the straight fibres, the intestine is gathered up in 
wrinkles, at different points, through its whole extent, and 
then elongated again, much like the movement of a 
worm ; by the contraction of the others, it is diminished 
in diameter at different sections: thus they are never at 
rest, but continually moving the chyme from place to 
place. The first motion is the vermicular, and the second 
the peristaltic. 



THE FLUIDS. 

HYGROLOGY. 

A variety of fluids are separated from the blood, by 
numerous organs, for various purposes, which are divided 
into crude, sanguineous, lymphatic, secreted, and excremen- 
titious. 

An example of a crude fluid is found in the chyle ; the 

What is the final cause of diges- What is the effect of the contraction 
tion ? of the longitudinal fihres ? 

Have the intestines distinct coats ? What is the vermicular motion? 

Name them. And what the peristaltic ? 

How are the circular fibres arrang- How are the fluids arranged 7 

ed 7 Sanguineous ? 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 257 

sanguineous in the blood ; the lymphatic in the lymphatic 
vessels ; and the excrement itious are all such as are ex- 
pelled from the system as useless. 

Again, the secreted fluids are further subdivided into 
the lacteal, as that in the tubes between the intestines and 
mesenteric glands ; aqueous, in the eye ; mucous, in the 
nose; albuminous, as the serum of the blood; oleous, as 
the fat ; and bilious, as exemplified in the bile. 

LYMPHATICS, AND THEIR SECRETIONS. 

Wherever a moisture exists, either externally or in the 
obscure cavities of the body, under the skin, among the 
muscles, in the brain, and indeed where any motion is 
effected, the lymphatics exist also, though they are invisi- 
ble. They take up the vapor or fluid and carry it to 
the thoracic duct, to be mixed with the blood. If any 
nutritious matter is unnecessarily expended in any one of 
these places, it is sure to be collected again, and returned 
to the circulation. 

Without these vessels always on the alert, fluids would 
accumulate beyond the necessities of the organs they 
were designed to assist, which would inevitably abridge 
the freedom of action, and produce disease. 

Thus, whatever is superfluous is sent back to the blood, 
whence, perhaps, in a majority of cases, it was taken, and, 
if of no further value, it is thrown into the kidneys, and 
a large portion of it, therefore, is thus conveyed from the 
body through the agency of the urinary apparatus. 

FLUIDS OF THE CRANIUM. 

A vapor exhales in the ventricles of the brain, secreted 
by the delicate arteries, to prevent an adhesion of the 
sides, and to keep the contents of the head moist. 

OF THE NOSTRILS. 

Part of the mucous in these canals consists of the tears 
passing down the lachrymal duct from the eyes, adverted 
to in the anatomy of the eye. Besides this, a congeries 
of muciparous glands under the lining membrane also 

Where are the lacteals found ? What are lymphatics ? 

The albuminous ? Where do they most abound ? 

The bilious ? 

22* 



258 ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 

mix their secretions with them to preserve the olfactory 
nerves from becoming dry, which would destroy their 
sensibility. 

No fluid whatever distils from the brain into the nose, 
as is sometimes vulgarly supposed. These are the only 
sources, even when in excessive quantity, as when labor- 
ing under a severe cold, whence it arises. 

OF THE MOUTH. 

Under the tip of the tongue, the angle of each jaw, and, 
lastly, under the ear, between the jaw and neck, are large 
glands, each secreting a fluid of the same character, — 
the saliva, in quantity sufficient to soften the food for 
mastication, and to keep the tongue, fauces, sides of the 
mouth and lips, moist and flexible. Such is their activity, 
that several ounces are ordinarily collected hxthe course 
of one meal. Each gland has a duct leading into the 
mouth. The motion of the jaws in chewing and swal- 
lowing contributes to the flowing of the fluid. 



THE SKIN. 



Above the muscles, and directly under the skin, is a 
spongy layer, called cellular substance, the cells of which 
are filled with fat. This cellular covering is enormously 
thick in whales, and denominated the blubber, which 
keeps the animal warm. Above this is the true skin, — 
smooth and delicate on its external surface, but of a looser 
texture on the under side, where it forms a union with the 
cellular substance. This true skin is technically called 
cutis vera. It is profusely supplied with blood-vessels, 
and so numerous are its nerves, that the point of a needle 
can nowhere be inserted without wounding one of them. 

As all the nerves finally run towards the surface of the 
body, it has led some to the opinion that the true skin 
was a tissue of nerves and vessels, so intimately inter- 
woven as to constitute a highly-sensitive envelope for the 

What do you know of the cellular What is the color of the cutis vera ? 
substance ? 



ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 259 

body. The color of the true skin is nearly the same in 
all races of men, — being as white in the negro as in the 
European. 

RETA MUCOSUM. 

There is spread over the true skin an extremely thin 
layer of paint, of the consistence of thin size, which has 
received the name of reta mucosum, and on this wholly 
and entirely depends the color or complexion of the indi- 
vidual. In the negro, this mucous paste is jet black ; in 
the Indian, copper-colored ; in the Spaniard, yellowish ; 
but white in the white variety of our species. This pig- 
ment is constantly flowing out upon the skin, to defend 
its irritable surface against the combined influence of the 
air, light, and heat. These agents, however, exert an 
action upon the mucous coloring, which dries, becomes 
hard and insensible, and is continually wearing off, and 
as constantly renewed. 

SCARF-SKIN. 

A familiar example of the scarf-skin, the exterior coat 
of all, is observable in blisters. It is totally insensible, 
rough, and by no means of a uniform thickness. In the 
palms of the hands, and soles of the feet, it becomes pro- 
digiously thickened, to defend the tender parts below. 
This scarf-skin is constantly wearing off, and as constantly 
renewed, and hence it is inferred that it is really nothing 
more than the reta mucosum, thrown off by the action of 
the excretory vessels. 

The query may arise, why, if this is the case, are not 
the palms of the negro's hands perfectly black ? They 
would be so if the scarf-skin in them had not lost its 
vitality. When the negro has suffered from a severe 
burn, the mouths of the ducts which poured out the color- 
ing matter, are sealed up by the subsequent inflammation, 
so that no more paint is thrown out, and the scar remains 
white. The reason is plain ; the true skin, which is 
white, is no longer obscured by the black pigment. 

Rouge, pearl-powder, cream of almonds, milk of roses, 
cologne, spirit of wine, and, indeed, the endless catalogue 

Where is the reta mucosum secret- Is the scarf-skin insensible ? 
ed ? Its use ? 



260 ANATOMICAL CLASS BOOK. 

of cosmetics, which are sold in the shops with the ostensi- 
ble object of beautifying the skin, are abominable impo* 
sitions, which ought to be interdicted, by a strict police 
regulation, till the happy period arrives when common 
sense is more frequently exercised on the subject of per- 
sonal appearance. The skin cannot be made permanently 
whiter, nor can the hair be stained without injuring it ; 
a roseate tint cannot be given to the cheek, by any pre- 
paration, that will be abiding. All this class of pretended 
beautifying articles positively injure the skin, leaving it 
rougher ; and, in old age, in consequence of their habitual 
application, the face is more thickly wrinkled, and the 
complexion assumes the hard, dead color of bronze. Still 
worse, the pores are deranged in their functions, and 
disease may be induced by the absorption of some of the 
ingredients of those noxious importations, which were 
never good for any thing but to fill the manufacturer's 
purse at the expense of those who are willing to be the 
dupes of their own folly. Cold water is truly a cosmetic, 
and should be used exclusively. 

The physiology of the nails, which are supposed to be 
a production of the scarf-skin, is not well understood. 
Writers have not given a satisfactory explanation of their 
origin or growth. 

With respect to the hair, its growth bears a striking 
analogy to vegetables, inasmuch as it rises from a bulbous 
root, imbedded in the skin, into which a gelatinous fluid 
is secreted. It would be entirely unnecessary to detail 
the opinions of authors on this subject, or to be very 
particular in relating our own. 

From whence do the nails have their origin ? 



GLOSSARY. 



Abdomen, (abdere, to hide,) the lower venter or belly, 

containing or hiding the intestines, etc. 
Acantha, (axavda, a spine or thorn,) sometimes used for 

the spine. 
Acetabulum, (acetum, vinegar,) the socket for the head 

of the thigh-bone, resembling an ancient vessel for 

holding vinegar. 
Acini, (acinus, a grape-seed,) the internal structure of 

several glands. 
Acoustic, (axovw, to hear,) a term applied to parts belong- 
ing to the ear, or to sound. 
Acromion, (axgog, the extremity, and ti/uog, the shoulder,) 

a n^ocess of the scapula. 
Adenology, \ccdrjv, a gland, and loyog, a discourse,) the 

doctrine of the glands. 
Adeps, fat, an oily matter contained in the cellular tissue. 
Adnata, (adnascor, to grow to,) the external coat of the 

eye. 
Adolescence, the age succeeding childhood. 
Albuginea Tunica, a membrane thus named from its 

whiteness. 
Albumen, an animal substance of the same nature as the 

white of an egg. 
Alveoli, (alveus, a cavity,) the sockets for the teeth. 
Amphiarthrosis, (a/ucpco, both, and agdgov, articulation,) an 

articulation admitting of an obscure motion. 
Anastomosis, («m, through, and oro.ua, a mouth,) the 

communication of vessels with one another. 



262 GLOSSARY. 

Anatomy, (ava, through, and tc^w, to cut,) dissection, or 
that knowledge of animal bodies acquired by dis- 
section. 

Ancon, the elbow, (from dyxo>,) because the bones, being 
there united, are folded one into another. Hence, 
also, 

Anconeus, a muscle situated there, and, 

Anconoid, a process of the cubit, from ayxcov, the elbow, 
and eidog, shape. 

Aneurism, an unnatural enlargement of an artery. 

Angeiology, (ayysiov, a vessel, and Xoyog, a discourse,) a 
description of the vessels. 

Antagonist, (uvti,, against, and aycov, a struggle,) an epi- 
thet of a muscle acting contrary to another. 

Antihelix, (aw, against, and edw, to turn about,) the 
external part of the ear opposite to the helix. 

Antithenar, (avTu, against, and Oevag, the palm of the 
hand,) one of the muscles extending the thumb. 

Antitragus, (am, against, and rgayog, a part of the ear,) 
a prominence of the ear opposite to the tragus. 

Aorta, (aogT?] ; from aqq, air, and tjjqew, to keep,) the great 
artery of the heart. 

Aponeurosis, (ano, from, and vevgov, a nerve,) a tendinous 
expansion, supposed by the ancients to be that of a 
nerve. 

Apophysis, (anocpvw, to spring from,) the process of a 
bone, and a part of the same bone. Epiphysis, a 
process attached to a bone, and not a part of the 
same bone. 

Arachnoides, (aQaxvrj, a spider's web, and eidog, likeness,) 
a cobweb-like membrane, the second covering of 
the brain. 

Arteria, {arjQ, air, and t^gj, to keep,) because the an- 
cients thought that air was contained in the arte- 
ries. 

Arthrodia, (aqOgov, a joint,) that kind of articulation 
which is shallow. 

Arytenoides, (agvTaivaj an ewer, and eidog, shape,) two 
cartilages of the larynx. 

Aspera Arteria, (asper, rough, and arteria, an air-ves- 
sel,) the trachea or wind-pipe. 

Astragalus, (acrrQaycdog, a die,) a bone of the tarsus : the 
corresponding bones of some animal were used by 
the ancients as dice. 



GLOSSARY. 263 

Atlas, the first of the cervical vertebrae, so named from 
supporting the head, as Atlas was supposed to 
support the world. 

Axilla, the arm-pit. 

Azygos, (a, without, and 'Qvyog, a yoke,) a term applied to 
any part not having a corresponding part. 

Basilica, (Bauilevg, a king.) an epithet, by way of emi- 
nence, given to one of the veins of the arm, to an 
artery of the brain, and to a process of the occipital 
bone. 

Bicornus, (bis ', two, and comics, a horn,) having two 
horns. 

Biceps, (bis, twice, and caput, a head,) composed of two 
heads. 

Bimanus, (bis, two, and mantes, a hand,) having two 
hands. 

Biped, (bipedis, gen. of bipes; bis, double, and pes, a foot,) 
having two feet. 

Brachium, (fiqaxvs, short,) because, in general, from the 
shoulder to the hand is shorter than from the hip 
to the foot. 

Bregma, (fige/m, to moisten,) the space between the bones 
of the infant head through which the superfluous 
humors of the brain were supposed to pass. 

Bronchi, (8goy/og, the wind-pipe,) the ramifications of the 
trachea. 

Buccinator, (buccina, a trumpet,) a muscle of the cheek, 
much used by trumpeters. 

Bursalogy, (fivgera, a purse, and Xoyog, a discourse,) a 
description of the bursa? mucosas. 

Cacochymv, (kakos, bad, and chumos, juice,) an unhealthy 
state of the animal secretions, or juices. 

Cadaverous, (cadaver, a dead body, from cado, to fall,) 
looking like a corpse. 

Caecum, blind : a term applied in anatomy to an imper- 
vious canal, or to a part which terminates abruptly 
in a pouch. 

Calcaneum, (calx, the heel,) the name of the os calcis. 

Calcareous, of the nature of lime. 

Calidity, (calidus, hot,) heat. 

Callous, (callus, hardness,} insensible. 



264 GLOSSARY. 

Calvaria, or Calva, (calvus, bald,) the upper part of the 
cranium, which turns first bald. 

Cancelli, (lattice-work,) the spongy substance in bones. 

Canine, (canis, a dog,) in relation to the teeth, resembling 
the dog's. 

Capillary Vessels, {capillus, a hair,) the small ramifica- 
tions of the arteries and veins. 

Capsule, a membranous production inclosing a part like 
a bag. 

Cardia, (xagdia, the heart,) the superior opening of the 
stomach, so called from being situated near the 
heart. 

Carnivora, (caroj flesh, and voro, to devour,) animals that 
live on flesh. 

Carotid, (xccqow, to induce sleep,) arteries of the head and 
neck, which if tied, the animal becomes comatose, 
or has the appearance of being asleep. 

Carpus, (xagnog,) the wrist. 

Cartilage, gristle, a matter softer than bone, but harder 
than ligament. 

Caruncula. This word is a diminutive from caro, flesh. 

Catarrh, (katarrheo, to flow from,) a disease. 

Cathartic, (katkairo, to purge,) purgative drugs. 

Catoptrics, (katoptron, a looking-glass, kata, against, 
and optomai, to see,) that part of the science of 
optics which relates to vision by reflection. 

Caudal, (cauda, a tail,) applied to the lower part of the 
spine. 

Cellula, (diminutive of cetta, a cell,) a little cavity or cell. 

Cephalic Vein, (xecpalr], the head,) the ancients being ac- 
customed to open this vein in disorders of the head. 

Ceratoglossus, (xeQug, a horn, and ylooaaa, a tongue,) a 
muscle running from one of the cornua of the os 
hyoides to the tongue. 

Cerebellum, dim. of Cerebrum, the brain, (*a^, the 
head,) little brain. 

Cerumen, (cera, wax,) a secretion within the ear. 

Cervix, the hinder part of the neck, the fore part being 
called Collum. 

Choledochus Ductus, (xolrj, bile, and de/opou, to receive,) 
the common bile-duct. 

Chorda, (zogdrj, a cord or assemblage of fibres,) a term 
applied to a nerve of the tympanum, to the sper- 
matic vessels, etc. 



GLOSSARY. 265 

Choroides, so called on account of its many blood- vessels 
resembling the chorion* 

Chronic, (chronos, time,) a long-standing disease. 

Chyle, (/vlog, the juice,) the milk-like fluid in the lacteal 
vessels. 

Clavicula, (dim. of clavis, a key,) the clavicle or collar- 
bone, so called from its resemblance to an ancient 
key. 

Clinoid, (xhvrj, a bed, and eidog, shape,) processes of the 
sella turcica of the sphenoid bone, so called from 
their resemblance to a couch. 

Coccyx, (xoxxu£, a cuckoo,) the lower end of the spine, so 
called from its resemblance to the beak of that 
bird. 

Cochlea, (xo/k>£, a conch,) a cavity of the ear resembling 
the shell of a snail. 

Ccecum, the blind intestine. 

Cozliaca, (xoiUa, the belly,) the name of an artery in the 
abdomen. 

Colon, (xwlov,) the first portion of the large intestine. 

Commissura, (committo, to join together,) applied to parts 
which unite the hemispheres of the brain. 

Concha, (xoyxyi a shell,) applied to the hollow of the ear, 
from its resmblance to a shell. 

Condyle, (xovdvlog, a joint, a knuckle, a knot,) an emi- 
nence in several of the joints. 

Conglobate, (conglobatus, gathered together in a circle,) 
a gland subsisting by itself, like those of the ab- 
sorbent system. 

Conglomerate, (congloTneratus, heaped together,) a gland 
composed of various glands. 

Coraco. Names compounded with this word belong to 
muscles which are attached to the coracoid process 
of the scapula. 

Coracoid, (xo^a?, a crow, and eidog, resemblance,) like the 
beak of a crow. 

Cornea, (cornu, a horn,) the anterior transparent convex 
part of the eye. 

Cornu, (a horn,) applied to a process resembling a horn. 

Coronary, (corona, a crown,) vessels so called from sur- 
rounding the parts like a crown. 

Coronoid, (xoqwvij, a crown, and eidog, shape,) a process 
shaped like a crown. 

Corpus Callosum, (corpus, a body, and callus, hard,) part 
23 



266 GLOSSARY. 

of the medullary substance of the brain, supposed 

to be firmer than the rest. 
Corticalis Substantia, (cortex, bark,) the exterior or cor- 
tical substance of the brain. 
Cost^:, (custodio, to guard,) the ribs, because they guard 

the heart, etc. 
Cotyloid, (xorvly, an old measure, and eidog, shape,) the 

cavity for receiving the head of the thigh-bone, 

resembling the rotuli. 
Cox^:, the haunches. 
Cranium, (xgaviov, the skull, quasi, xagaviov, from xaga,) 

the head. 
Cribriform, (cribrum, a sieve,) perforated like a sieve. 
Cricoid, (xgixog, a ring, and eidog, shape,) the annular 

cartilage of the larynx. 
Crista Galli, a portion of the ethmoid bone, so called 

from its resemblance to a cock's comb. Crista, a 

term applied to other parts which resemble a crest. 
Crura, (cries, a leg,) applied to some parts from their 

resemblance or analogy to a leg^ 
Crypts, (xgvjtw), to hide,) mucous follicles which are con- 
cealed. 
Crystal, (krustallos, ice,) one of the humors of the eye. 
Crystalline, (xgycrmllog,) a term applied to the lens, from 

its resemblance to ice. 
Cubitus, (a cubando,) that part of the arm from the elbow 

to the wrist, because the ancients, during meals, 

used to recline upon it. 
Cuboides, (xvfiog, a cube, and eidog, shape,) a bone of 

the foot resembling a cube. 
Cucullaris, (cucullus, a cowl or hood,) a broad muscle 

of the scapula, so called from its shape. 
Cuneiform, (cuneus, a wedge,) wedge-shaped. 
Cuticula, (the dim. of cutis, the skin), the scarf-skin. 
Cutis, the skin. 
Cysticus Ductus, (xvartg, a bladder, ductus, a duct,) the 

duct leading from the gall-bladder. 

Deltoid, (delm, the fourth letter of the Greek alphabet, 
and eidog, shape,) resembling the Greek letter 4. 

Dermis, (deg t ua,) the more solid skin. 

Detrusor UrinjE, (detrudere,) to thrust or squeeze out of. 

Diaphragm, (diaygavcrw, a partition,) the transverse mus- 
cle which separates the thorax from the abdomen. 



GLOSSARY. 267 

Diastole, (diaaiellco, to relax,) the dilation of the heart, 
auricles, and arteries, opposed to systole, the con- 
traction of the same parts. 

Diarthrosis, (diagdgow, to articulate,) a movable connex- 
ion of bones. 

Digastric, (dtg, twice, and yaaTtjg, a belly,) having two 
bellies. 

Dioptric, (dia, through, and optomai, to view,; assisting 
the sight in viewing distant objects. 

Diploe, (dmloog, double,) the spongy substance between 
the two tables of the skull. 

Dissect, (dis, asunder, and seco, to cut,) to cut in pieces* 

Dorsal, (dorsum, the back,) pertaining to the back. 

Duodenum, (duodenus, consisting of twelve, viz. fingers' 
breadth,) the first portion of the small intestine, so 
called from its general length. 

Dura Mater, (durus, hard, and mater, a mother,) the 
outermost membrane of the brain, the ancients 
finding it harder than, and supposing it to give 
origin to, the other membranes of the body. 

Elaine, (elatov, oil,) the more fluid part of one of the 
proximate principles of fat. 

Emulgents, (emulgeo, to milk out,) the arteries and veins 
of the kidneys, so called because, according to the 
ancients, they strained, and, as it were, milked the 
serum through the kidneys. 

Emunctores, (emungo, to wipe away,) glands which, ac- 
cording to the ancients, received the excrementi- 
tious matter from the noble parts, as the parotids 
from the brain, the axillary glands from the heart, 
and inguinal glands from the liver. 

Enarthrosis, (ev, in, and agdgov, a joint,) an articulation 
of bones, the same as arthrosis. 

Encephalon, (ev, in, and xeycclq, the head,) the brain. 

Enteric, (bvtsqov, an intestine,) belonging to the intes- 
tines. 

Epicranium, (em, and xgaviov,) the integuments and apon- 
eurotic expansion which are extended over the 
cranium. 

Epidermis, (em, upon, and degree, the skin,) the cuticle. 

Epigastric, (em, upon, and yacnrjg, the stomach,) the 
superior part of the abdomen. 



268 GLOSSARY. 

Epiglottis, (em, upon, and ylcoTng, lingula,) one of the 

five cartilages of the larynx, situated above the 

glottis. 
Ephippium, (em, upon, and innog, a horse,) part of the os 

sphenoides, so called from its resemblance to a 

saddle. 
Epiphysis, (em, upon, and yvw, to grow,) see Apophysis. 
Epiploon, (em, upon, and nXsco, to sail,) the omentum, or 

that serous membrane of the abdomen which covers 

the intestines, and hangs from the bottom of the 

stomach. 
Ethmoid, (rjO/uog, a sieve,) so called because it is perforated 
v like a sieve. 

Falciform, (falx, a scythe,) shaped like a scythe. 

Fascia, (fascia, a band,) a membranous expansion of cer- 
tain muscles like a sheath. 

Fasciculus, a little bundle, diminutive of fastis, a bundle. 

Fauces, (the plural of faux,) the top of the throat. 

Fibrin, a peculiar organic compound, which is the most 
abundant constituent of the soft solids of animals. 

Fibula, (a clasp,) the lesser bone of the leg, which is thus 
named from being placed opposite to the part 
where the knee-buckle or clasp was formerly 
used. 

Fimbria, a fringe, a term applied to parts of a fringe-like 
appearance. 

Follicle, (follis, a bag,) very minute secreting cavities. 

Frjenum, (a bridle,) the membranous ligament under the 
tongue. 

Galactophorous, (yaloti milk, and ysgM, to carry,) convey- 
ing the milk. 

Ganglion, (yayylwv,) an enlargement in the course of a 
nerve. 

Gastric, (yaon^g, the stomach,) appertaining to the stom- 
ach. 

Gastrocnemius, (yacnyg, the belly, and xvyfir], the leg,) 
the muscle forming the thick of the leg. 

Gastro-Epiploic, (yacnrg, the stomach, and emnXoov, the 
caul,) belonging to the stomach and omentum. 

Gelatine, (gelu,) jelly. 

Genio, (yevetov, the chin ;) names compounded with this 
word belong to muscles attached to the chin. 



GLOSSARY. 269 

Ginglymus, (yiyylvfiog, a hinge,) articulation admitting 

flexion and extension, 
Glandula, (dim. of gla?is t ) a nut or acorn. 
Glenoid, {y^vrj^ a cavity,) a part having a shallow cavity. 
Gliadine, (yha, glue,) one of the constituents of gluten. 
Glomer, a convoluted bundle of glands. 
Glosso, (ylwvaa, the tongue ;) names compounded with 

this word are applied to muscles attached to the 

tongue. 
Glottis, (ylwmg, lingula,) the superior opening of the 

larynx. 
Gluteus, {ylovTog, the buttock,) muscles forming part of 

the buttocks. 
Gomphosis, (yofiyoo), to drive in a nail,) an articulation of 

bones, like a nail in a piece of wood. 

Hemorrhoidal, (ai/ua, blood, and geca, to flow,) a term 
applied to the vessels of the rectum, because they 
often bleed. 

Harmonia, (&Qpovict, a close joining,) a species of immov- 
able articulation. 

Helix, (edoj, to turn about,) the outer bar or margin of 
the external ear. 

Hepatic, (i^a^, the liver,) applied to parts belonging to 
the liver. 

Hyaloid, (valog, glass,) the capsule of the vitreous humor 
of the eye. 

Hyo ; names compounded with this word belong to mus- 
cles which are attached to the 

Hyoides, Os, (v, and eidog, shape,) a bone of the tongue 
resembling the Greek upsilon, v. 

Hypochondrium, (i/tto, under, and xovdyog, a cartilage,) the 
upper region of the abdomen, under the cartilages 
of the ribs. 

Hypogastric, (v7to, under, and yaarrjg, the belly,) the lower 
region of the fore part of the abdomen. 

Hypoglossus, (vno, under, and ylwcraa, the tongue,) parts 
which lie under the tongue. 

Hypothenar, (u7to, under, and devaQ, the palm of the 
hand,) one of the muscles contracting the thumb. 

Ileum, (eileo, to turn,) a portion of the small intestine, so 

called from being found convoluted. 
Incisores, (incidere, to cut,) the fore teeth. 
23* 



270 GLOSSARY. 

Incus, (an anvil,) a small bone of the internal ear, with 
which the malleus is articulated. 

Index, (indico, to point out.) the fore finger. 

Infundibulum, (a funnel,) a tube leading from the brain 
to the pituitary gland. 

Innominatum, parts which have no proper name. 

Interfemineum ; vide Perineum. 

Interosseous, (inter and os,) a term applied to parts sit- 
uated between bones. 

Iris, (the rainbow,) the membrane round the pupil of the 
eye, deriving its name from its various colors. 

Ischium, (ia/co, to support,) that part of the os innomina- 
tum upon which we sit. 

Jejunum, (empty,) a portion of the small intestine, so 

called from being generally found empty. 
Jugale, Os, the zygoma. 
Jugular, (jugulum, the throat,) large veins of the neck. 

Lachrymal, (lachryma, a tear,) belonging to the tears. 

Lacteal, (lac, milk,) the name of the vessels in the intes- 
tines which carry the chyle, a milky-colored 
fluid. 

Lacunje, little cavities. 

Lambdoidal, resembling the Greek lambda, A. 

Lamella, dim. of 

Lamina, a scale or plate. It is used for the foliated struc- 
ture of bones or other organs. 

Larynx, (XaqvyS,) the superior part of the trachea. 

Levator, (levo, to lift,) applied to several muscles. 

Ligament, (ligo, to bind,) parts which bind bones, &c, 
together. 

Linea Alba, a white line formed by the meeting of the 
tendons of the abdominal muscles. 

Lumbricales, (Imnbricus, an earth-worm,) four muscles 
of the hand and foot. 

Lympheduct, (lympka, lymph, and ductus, a guidance, 
from duco y to lead,) a vessel carrying lymph, a 
colorless fluid. 

Mammalia, (mazos, the breast,) those animals which nour- 
ish their young with milk. 

Masseter, ((jtaaoaopat, to chew,) a muscle which, assists 
in chewing. 



GLOSSARY. 271 

Mastoid, (aaarog, a breast,) shaped like a nipple or breast. 

Maxilla, the jaw. 

Mediana Vena, the middle vein of the arm, between the 
basilic and cephalic. 

Mediastinum, (medium, the middle,) a middle portion 
separating parts from each other. 

Medulla Spinalis, the spinal marrow or cord. 

Membrana Nictitans, (nicto, to wink,) a membrane with 
which birds can occasionally cover the eye. 

Membrane, (membrana, a film,) a delicate web. 

Meninges, (^j^yl, a membrane,) membranes which in- 
close the brain. 

Mesentery, (/ueaog, the middle, and bvtsqov, the intestine,) 
the membrane in the middle of the intestines, by 
which they are attached to the spine. 

Meseraic, (fieaog, the middle, and c^cua, the small intes- 
tine,) the same as the last article. 

Mesocolon, (/uevog, the middle, xcolov, the colon,) that part 
of the mesentery in the middle of the colon. 

Metacarpus, (/usra, after, and xaqnog, the wrist,) that part 
of the hand between the carpus and fingers. 

Metatarsus, (/listcc, after, and tccQ<Tog y the tarsus,) that part 
of the foot between the tarsus and toes. 

Mitralis Valvula, (mitra, a mitre,) valves at the left 
ventricle of the heart, like a mitre. 

Molar Teeth, the double or grinding teeth. 

Mucus, (^u|a, the mucus of the nostrils,) a transparent, 
saline, glutinous fluid. 

Mylo, ([ivIt], a grinder tooth ;) names compounded of this 
word belong to muscles that are attached near the 
grinders. 

Myoides Platysma, a muscular expansion on the neck. 
See Platysma. 

Myology, (pvg and Xoyog,) the doctrine of the muscles. 

Naviculare, (navicula, a small boat,) a bone of the carpus, 

and also of the tarsus. 
Neurilemma, (vevqov, a nerve, and Is/u/ua, a coat,) the 

sheath of a nerve. 
Neurology, (vbvqov, a nerve,) the doctrine of the nerves. 

Ocellated, (oculus, an eye,) resembling an eye. 
Odontoides, (odovg, a tooth, and sidog, shape,) tooth-like. 



272 GLOSSARY. 

(Esophagus, (o«w, to carry, and qxxyw, to eat,) the canal 

leading from the pharynx to the stomach, carrying 

what is swallowed into the stomach. 
Olecranon, (colevy, the cubit, xqupov, the head,) the elbow. 

or head of the ulna. 
Olfactory, (olfacio, to smell to,) having the sense of 

smell. 
Omentum, (omen, a guess,) the caul, so called because the 

ancient priests prophesied from an inspection of 

this viscus. 
Omo, (o^/os, the shoulder ;) names compounded with this 

word belong to muscles which are attached to the 

scapula. 
Omo-Plata, (wfiog, the shoulder, and nlarvg, broad,) the 

scapula, or shoulder-blade. 
Opaque, (opaco, to shade,) not transparent. 
Ophthalmia, (opkthalmos, an eye,) a disease of the eyes. 
Ophthalmic, (oydal/uog, an eye,) relating to the eye. 
Orbicular, (orbis, round,) circular. 
Organ, (ogyavov,) a part which has a determined office m 

the animal economy. 
Osmazome, (oa/nij, flavor, and tyfiog, broth,) a peculiar 

principle obtained from muscular fibre, having the 

taste and smell of broth. 
Ossify, (os, a bone, and Jio, to become,) to change to bone. 
Osteology, (ogtsov, bone, and loyog, a discourse,) the doc- 
trine of the bones. 
Oviparous, (ovum, an egg, and pario, to bring forth,) 

bringing forth eggs. 

Palpi, (palpo, to grope or feel one's way,) feelers. 
Pampiniformis, (pampinus, a vine-tendril, and forma, 

shape.) The spermatic vessels form a plexus, 

which, from its similitude to the tendrils of a vine, 

is called pampiniformis. 
Pancreas, (nap, all, and xgeag, flesh,) a gland of the 

abdomen. 
Panniculus Carnosus, (pannus, a covering, and caro, 

flesh,) a fleshy covering. 
Papillary, (papilla, a nipple,) having a resemblance to 

nipples. 
Paralysis, (paralusls, through, and luo, to untie,) a palsy. 
Parenchyma, (nageyx^h to pour through,) a substance 

connecting the vessels, etc., of the lungs, liver, etc. 



GLOSSARY. 273 

Parietalia, (paries, a wall,) bones of the cranium, serving 

as a wall to the brain. 
Parietes. Used to express inclosures which contain 

organs. 
Parotid, (naga, near, and orog, the gen. of ovg, the ear,) 

a gland situated near the ear. 
Patella, (dim. of patina, a pan,) the kneepan. 
Pathetics, (nadog, passion,) the fourth pair of nerves, 

because by means of these the eyes express certain 

passions. 
Pathology (pathos, disease, and logos, a description) 

treats of diseases. 
Pelvis, (nelv^ , a basin,) the basin of the kidneys, or the 

lower part of the abdomen, in which the bladder 

and rectum are contained. 
Pericardium, (negi, around, and xagdia, the heart,) the 

membrane surrounding the heart. 
Perichondrium, (negt, and %ovdgog,) synovial membrane 

covering cartilage. 
Pericranium, (negi, around, and xgavtov, the cranium,) the 

membrane covering the bones of the cranium. 
Perineum, (nsQwaiov, to now round, because that part is 

generally moist.) 
Periosteum, (negv, around, and ooteov, a bone,) the mem- 
brane surrounding the bones. 
Peristaltic, (negicrxelha, to contract,) the motion of the 

intestines. 
Peritoneum, (negvrepca, to extend round,) the membrane 

lining the abdomen and covering its organs. 
Perone, (nsqovri,) the fibula or small bone of the leg. 
Petrosum, Os, (irsTga, a rock,) part of the temporal bone. 
Phalanx, (an army ;) the bones of the fingers and toes 

are called phalanges, from their regularity. 
Pharynx, (cpagvyZ,) a membranous bag at the back end of 

the mouth, leading to the stomach. 
Phlebotomy, (phleps, a vein, and temno, to cut,) opening 

a vein for bleeding. 
Phrenic, (ygeveg, the diaphragm, <pgr]v, the mind, because 

the diaphragm was supposed to be the seat of the 

mind,) the name of a nerve, etc. 
Phrenology, (phren, the mind, and logos, a discourse,) 

a science treating of the mind by an inspection of 

the human skull. 



274 GLOSSARY. 

Physiology, ((pvaig, nature,) that science which has ior its 
object a knowledge of the actions and functions of 
the living body. 

Pia Mater, the innermost membrane around the brain. 

Picromel, (mxgog, bitter, and /uefo, honey,) the character- 
istic principle of bile. 

Pisiform, (pea-like,) a term applied to the fourth bone of 
the first row of the carpus. 

Pituitary, (producing phlegm,) a term applied to the 
membrane of the nose, etc. 

Placenta, (nka£, a cake.) 

Plantaris, (planta, the sole,) parts situated in the sole. 

Platysma-Myoides, (nXaTvg, broad, pvg, a muscle, and 
eidog, shape,) a muscle of the neck. 

Pleura, (nkevga, the side,) a serous membrane lining the 
cavity of the thorax. 

Plexus, (plecto, to weave together,) a kind of net-work of 
blood-vessels or nerves. 

Pneumonic, (nvevjLiwr, the lung,) appertaining to the lungs. 

Popliteus, (poples, the ham,) a muscle of the leg. 

Post Mortem, after death. 

Processus, (procedo, to start out,) an eminence of bone. 

Psoas, (ipoou, the loins,) a muscle so named from its situ- 
ation. 

Pterygoid, (mega, a wing,) a process resembling a wing. 

Pterygo-Staphylini, (ntBQvZ, a wing, and oxayvlri, a 
grape,) muscles arising from the pterygoid process 
of the os sphenoides, and inserted into the uvula. 

Pulmonary, (pulmo, the lungs,) relating to the lungs. 

Pulsation, (pello, to strike,) the perceptible action of the 
blood in the arteries. 

Punctum ViTiE, point of life. 

Pupilla, (a little puppet,) the round aperture in the iris 
of the eye. 

Pylorus, (nvlcogog, the keeper of a gate,) the lower orifice 
of the stomach, guarding the entrance of the 
bowels. 

Pvramidalis, a muscle having the form of a pyramid. 

Pyriform, (pyrus,) a muscle having the form of a pear. 

Quadrumanous, (quatuor, four, and manus, a hand,) hav- 
ing four hands, as monkeys. 

Quadruped, {quatuor, four, and pes, a foot,) having four 
feet. 



GLOSSARY. 275 

Rachidian, (gaxig, the spine,) appertaining to the spine. 

Radius, (the spoke of a wheel,) the small bone of the 
fore-arm. 

Ramous, (ramus, a branch,) branchy. 

Ranular, like a frog or toad. 

Raphe, (gama, to sew,) a line having the appearance of 
a seam. 

Rectum, the straight gut, the last of the intestines. 

Region, (rego, to rule,) parts of the body. 

Regurgitate, (re, back, and gurges, a whirlpool,) to flow 
back. 

Renal, appertaining to the kidney, from 

Renes, the kidneys, through which the urine flows. 

Retina, (rete, a net,) the net-like expansion of the optic 
nerve on the inner surface of the eye. 

Rhomboideus, a muscle so called from resembling a geo- 
metrical figure, (QOfifiog,) the sides of which are 
equal, but not right-angled. 

Rotula, (dim. of rota, a wheel,) the kneepan. 

Ruminate, (rumino, to chew over again,) to chew the cud. 

Sacrum, (sacred,) a bone so called because it was offered 
in sacrifice ; lower end of the spinal column. 

Sagittalis, (sagitta, an arrow,) a suture in the cranium. 

Saliva, the fluid secreted in the mouth. 

Salvatella, (salvo, to preserve,) a vein of the foot, the 
opening of which was said to preserve health and 
cure melancholy. 

Sanguis, the blood. 

Saphena, (uacprjg, manifest,) the most obvious vein of the leg. 

Sartorius, (sartor, a tailor,) the muscle by means of 
which the tailor lays his legs across. 

Scaleni, (axaXyvog, a geometrical figure with three une- 
qual sides,) muscles of the neck* 

Scapha, (crxayt], a little boat,) the depression of the outer 
ear before the anti-helix. 

Scaphoides, (resembling a boat,) a bone of the carpus, 
and also of the tarsus. 

Scapula, the shoulder-blade. 

Sclerotic, (axlrjQog, hard,) the outermost or hardest mem- 
brane of the eye. 

Scutiform, shaped like a shield. 

Sebaceous, suety ; a term applied to glands which secrete 
an unctuous matter. 



276 GLOSSARY. 

Sella Turcica, Sella Equina, Sella Sphenoides, are 

various names for a part of the sphenoid bone 

resembling a Turkish saddle. 
Septum Cordis, (sepes, a hedge,) the fleshy substance 

which separates the right from the left ventricle 

of the heart. 
Serum, one of the constituents of the blood. 
Serous, (serum, whey,) thin, watery. 
Sesamoid, (cr^aajLtrj, an Indian bean,) small bones in the 

hands and feet resembling the semen sesamu 
Sigmoid, resembling the Greek g, sigma. 
Simia, (simos, flat-nosed,) monkey tribes. 
Skeleton, (crxelfoj, to dry,) the articulated dry bones of 

an animal. 
Soleus, (solea, sole,) a muscle of the leg having the form 

of that fish. 
Sphenoid, (acpyp, a wedge,) shaped like a wedge. 
Sphincter, (vyiyyto, to constrict,) the name of several 

muscles, the office of which is to close the aper- 
tures around which they are placed. 
Spine, (spina, a thorn,) the back bone. 
Spiracle, (spiro, to breathe,) a breathing-hole. 
Splanchnology, (anlayxvov, the viscera,) the description 

of the internal organs. 
Splenius, (vnlr}v, the spleen,) a muscle so named from 

its resemblance to that organ. 
Squamous, (squama, a scale,) covering as the scales of 

fishes do each other. 
Stapes, (a stirrup,) one of the small bones of the internal 

ear. 
Stearine, ((TTsag, fat,) the more solid part of one of the 

proximate principles of fat. 
Stomachus, ((TTOfia, a mouth, and #£&?, to pour,) the stom- 
ach. 
Styloid, (stylus, a pencil,) a process like a pencil on the 

temporal and other bones. 
Succenturiatus, (succenturiare,) to supply the place of 

another. 
Suture, (sutura, a seam,) an appearance which is most 

obvious in that union of the bones of the skull 

constituting the dove-tail suture. 
Symphysis, (ovfiyvM, to grow together,) the connexion of 

bones which have no manifest motion. 



GLOSSARY. 277 

Synarthrosis, (aw, with, and agdgov, a joint,) articulation 
without manifest motion. 

Synchondrosis, (aw, with, and %ovdgog, a cartilage,) artic- 
ulation by means of intervening cartilage. 

Syndesmology, (avpdea^og, a ligament,) the doctrine of 
ligaments. 

Syndesmosis, the connexion of bones by ligaments. 

Syneurosis, (aw, with, and vsvgov, a nerve,) the connex- 
ion of bones by tendon, formerly mistaken for nerve. 

Synthesis, (awjidr^^v, to put together,) the anatomical 
connexion ofthe bones of the skeleton. 

Syssarcosis, (gvv, with, and aagg, flesh,) the connexion 
of bones by muscle. 

Systole, (avajello), to contract.) See Diastole. 

Talus, (a die,) a bone ofthe tarsus. 

Tarsus, the space between the bones of the leg and the 
metatarsus. 

Tegument, (tego, to cover,) any membrane. 

Temporal. Bones, etc., have been so named on account 
of occupying the region of the head on which the 
hair generally first begins to turn gray, thus indi- 
cating the age. 

Tendon, (tswco, to extend,) a fibrous cord at the extremity 
of a muscle. 

Tentacula, (tento, to seize,) organs by which certain ani- 
mals attach themselves to surrounding objects. 

Teres, (round,) the name of a muscle. 

Testaceous, (testa, a shell-fish,) having a shell. 

Tetanus, (teino, to stretch,) cramp, rigidity of the mus- 
cles. 

Thalamus, (dala/nog, a bed,) applied to a part of the brain 
from which the optic nerve takes its origin. 

Theca, (a sheath.) The spinal canal is often called theca 
vertebralis. 

Thenar, (the palm of the hand,) a muscle extending the 
thumb. 

Therapeutic, (therapeuo, to heal,) teaching the cure of 
diseases. 

Thorax, (tfo^af, the chest,) or that part of the body which 
contains the heart and lungs. 

Thymus, (dv t uog, a bulbous root,) a temporary gland in 
the thorax. 
24 



278 GLOSSARY. 

Thyreo. Names compounded with this word belong to 

muscles which are attached to the 
Thyroid, (Ovgeog, a shield,) a cartilage of the larynx com- 
pared to a shield. 
Tibia, (a pipe or flute,) the great bone of the leg. 
Tonsils, the round glands placed between the arches of 

the palate. 
Trachea, (iga/vg, rough,) the windpipe. 
Tragus, (a goat,) a small eminence of the external ear, 

upon which hair often grows, HLe the beard of a 

goat. 
Traject, (trans, across, and jacio, to throw,) the quick 

rush, for example, of the blood from a wounded 

vessel. 
Trapezoid, like a trapezium. 
Trepan, (trepo, to turn,) an instrument for cutting out a 

round piece of bone from the skull. 
Trochanter, (tqoxcxw, to run or to roll,) a process of the 

thigh bone, the muscles inserted into which greatly 

contribute to the action of running. 
Trochlea, (r^a/Ua, a pulley,) a kind of cartilaginous 

pulley. 
Trochlearis, an articulation where one part moves round 

another like a pulley. 
Tympanum, the drum of the ear. 
Typhus, (tuphos, stupor,) a species of fever. 

Ulna, (aXevrj, the cubit,) one of the bones of the fore-arm. 

Umbilicus, (opyalog,) the navel. 

Urachus, {ovqop, urine, and #ew, to pour,) a ligament of 

the bladder. 
Ureter, (ovgov, urine,) the canal that transmits the urine 

from the kidney into the bladder. 
Urethra, (ovg-qOga,) the canal through which urine passes 

from the bladder. 
Uvea, (uva, a grape,) the posterior lamina of the iris. 
Uvula, the pendulous body which hangs down from the 

middle of the soft palate. 

Valves, (valves, folding-doors,) little membranes prevent- 
ing the return of the fluids in the blood-vessels 
and absorbents. 

Vascular, (vas, a vessel,) consisting of little vessels. 



GLOSSARY. 279 

Venesection, (vena, a vein, and sectus, part, of seco, to 
cut,) the act of opening a vein ; bleeding. 

Ventral, (venter, the belly,) belonging to the abdomen. 

Ventricle, (venter, the stomach,) applied, in anatomy, to 
the cavities of the brain and heart. 

Ventriloquist, (venter, the belly, and loquor, to speak,) 
one who articulates words, and imitates voices, 
without apparently using the common organs of 
speech ; so called because it was once supposed 
that the voice came from the lower part of the 
body, below the vocal apparatus. 

Vermicular, (vermis, a worm,) motion like the movement 
of a worm. 

Vertebrje, (verto, to turn,) the bones of the spine. 

Vertebralia, (verto, to turn,) animals having a spine. 

Vesicle, (vesica, bladder,) a small bladder-like cavity. 

Vis Vitje, living power. 

Viviparous, (vivus, alive, and pario, to bring forth,) 
opposed to oviparous. 

Vomer, (a ploughshare,) a bone of the nose. 

Vox Kauca, the changing of the voice from boyhood to 
manhood. 

Xiphoid, (h<pog, a sword,) like a sword ; a term applied 
to the cartilage of the sternum. 

Zoogonia, (zoos, living, and gone, offspring,) the produc- 
tion of living creatures. 

Zootomy, (zoos, living, and temno, to cut,) dissection of 
the bodies of animals. 

Zygoma, (l^vyog, a yoke,) the arch formed by the zygo- 
matic processes of the temporal and cheek bones. 



I 


N D E X, 




A. 


Page. 


B. 


Page. 


Abdomen, 


. 241 


Back, view of the muscles, . 80 


" muscles of, . 


70 


Bats, seek food without 


eyes, 214 


Acids, injurious to the teeth 


44 


Bicuspides, 


. . 43 


Adaptation of the eye to dis- 


Bird's ear, 


. 178 


tances, .... 


. 217 


Birds, respiration of, 


. . 230 


Adenology, 


. 219 


Blindness, frequent cause of, 196 


Aged persons require conve 


X 


Blows, effects of on the skull, 19 


glasses, . 


. 205 


Blood, black, 


. . 139 


Albino's eyes red, . 


. 212 


" circulation of, 


. 110, 136 


Amphibia, breathing of, 


. 227 


BoneSj connexion of, 


14 


Anatomy, definition of, 


7 


" distortion of, 


39 


" division into niE 


e 


" of birds, hollow 


. 230 


parts, . . . . 


.8 


Brain, 


. 141 


Angiology, . . 


. 110 


" the seat of the int 


ellect, 146 


Anibleps, 


. 216 


" small, 


. 142 


Animation, suspended, . 


56 


Breast bone, 


25 


Antagonist muscles, 


54 


Breathing, of oysters, 


. . 226 


Antennae of insects, 


159 


" of amphibial 


s, . 227 


Aorta, . . . . 


123 


" of fishes, 


. 227 


Aqueous humor, 


194 


" of frogs, 


. . 228 


Arm, bones of, 


29 


Bursalogy, 


. . 110 


Artery, coronary, . 


124 






" brachial, 


133 


C. 




Arteries of the body, 


127 


Caecum, 


. . 252 


" of the head, . 


127 


Camel, stomach of, 


. 252 


" vary in their relatio 


a 


Canals, .semicircular, 


. 173 


to parts, 


148 


Capillary vessels, . 


. 132 


Articulate sounds, . 


233 


Carnivora, tapetum of, 


. 213 


Arytaenoid cartilages, . 


235 


Carotid arteries, 


. 130 


Astragalus, os, 


36 


Catalogue of muscles, 


57 


Atlas, 


24 


Cat's eyes, 


. 191 


Atmosphere, medium of soun 


i, 229 


Cataracts, 


. 196 


Auditory nerve, 


178 


Cellular substance, 


. 258 


Auricles of the heart, . 


120 


Cerebellum, . . 


. 142 


Auricula auditus, 


170 


Cerebrum, 


142, 144 


Axis, optic, .... 


210 


Cerebral substance, 


,'" 145 



INDEX. 



281 





Page. 




Pa?e. 


Chambers, of the eye, . 


. 194 


Decussation of rays of li 


ght, 209 


Chameleon, lungs of, . 


. 223 


Deltoid muscle, 


81 


Cheek, bones of, 


20 


Dental sounds, 


. 236 


Chest, female, well form 


ed, . 41 


Dentes sapientiae, . 


43 


Child, beginning to waL 


i, . 52 


Dentifrices, 


44 


Children, in school, 


27 


Dentatus, . 


25 


" born blind, 


. 197 


Diaphragm, 


. 221 


Chinese distortion of the 


foot, 40 


Diastole of the heart, 


. 124 


Choroid, tunic, of the ey 


e, . 188 


Digestion, 


, 254 


Chyme, 


. 254 


" how interrupted, . 150 


Clairvoyance, . P 


. 201 


Diminution of humors in the 


Clavicle, . 


28 


eye, . 


. 195 


Ciliary processes, . 


. 191 


Diseases of the ear, 


. 181 


Circulation of the blood 


110, 136 


s * of the internal 


ear, 172 


Coats of the brain, , 


. 142 


Dislocation, of the neck, 


25 


" of the eye, . 


. 187 


Distortions, of breast-bone, . 26 


Cochlea, . 


. 176 


Double heart, . . 


. 115 


Colon, 


. 252 


" organs, . * . 


. 144 


Coloring matter, of the 


Dlood, 139 


Dropsy of the brain, 


19 


Concave glasses, . 


. 207 


Drum of the ear, 


160,166 


Concha, . 


. 159 


Duct, thoracic, 


240, 255 


Conjunctiva, . 


. 202 


Ducts, lachrymal, plan of, . 204 


Contractility, destructioi 


lof, 53 


Duodenum, 


. 252 


Contracted female chest 


41 


Dura mater, 


. 142 


Consumption, how prod 








Cords, vocal, . 


. 235 


E. 




Cornea, 


. 189 


Ear, .... 


. 158 


Coronary vein, 


. 121 


" bones of, 


10, 170 


" artery, . 




f{ diseases of, 


. 181 


Costae, 


25 


" of reptiles, 


. 156 


Couching, . 


. 197 


" trumpets, 


. 161 


Coverings of muscles, 


51 


Ear-ache, 


. 181 


Cramps, . 


54 


Eighth nerve, 


. 153 


Cranium, fluids of, . 


. 257 


Enamel of the teeth, 


. . 43 


Crassamentum, 


. 139 


Entry, 


. 173 


Cross-eye, 


. 211 


Epiglottis, 


. 235 


Crycoid cartilage, . 


. 235 


Error loci, 


. 140 


Cuboides, os, . 


36 


Eruca labra, 


. 224 


Cuneiforme, os, 




Ethmoid bone, 


18 


Cupola, of the ear, . 


. 177 


Eustachian tube, 


. 167 


Cuspidati, 


43 


Exercise of females, 


40 






Extremities, upper, bone 


sof, 11,34 


D. 




" inferior, bon 


es of, 11,34 


Dark, seeing in, 


, 212 


Extraction of cataracts, 


. 197 


Death, . . . 


54 


Eye, . , \ 


. 183 


Deafness, partial, from a 


cold, 181 


" a perceiving instru 


ment, 18-3 


" permanent, 




(< globe of, 


. 185 


24* 




L 





282 



INDEX. 



Eye, muscles of, . 


Page. 
. 185 


Great circulation of blood, 


" Page. 
. 118 


Eyes of graminivorous ani- 


Green spectacles, . 


» 208 


mals, .... 


. 191 


Growth of bones, . 


38 


Eye-stones, 


. 202 


Guttural sounds, 


. 236 


F. 




H. 




Face, bones of, 


10,20 


Hair, .... 


. 260 


" muscles of, . 


58, 60 


Haifa heart, . 


. 114 


Fauces, muscles of, . - 


68 


Hand, bones of, 


11 


Feeling, .... 


. 218 


Hawk's eyes, &c, . 


. 203 


Females, ribs of, . 


25 


Heart, .... 


. 113 


Female skeleton, . . 


38 


" double, 


. 115 


Femoris, os, . . . 


34 


Heart-case, 


. 125 


Femoral arteries, . 


. 130 


Hemispheres of the brain, 


. 142 


Fenestra ovalis, 


. 168 


Hips, . . . . 


29 


" rotunda. 


. 169 


Humors of the eye, 


. 193 


Fibrin, 


. 139 


Hydrocanthiri, 


. 224 


Fingers, bones of, . 


33 


Hygrology, 


. 256 


Fish's heart, . 


. 114 






Fishes cannot see well in ai 


r, 215 


I. 




Flesh, . 


50 


Iliac arteries, . 


. 130 


Flexors have antagonists, 


54 


Image inverted on the ret- 


Fluids, . . . .1 


10, 256 


ina, 


. 209 


" not to be put in th 


e 


Inarticulate sounds, 


. 233 


ear, 


. 182 


Inci sores, 


43 


Food-pipe, 


. 239 


Indistinct view of the neai 




Foot, bones of, 


11 


sighted, .... 


206 


"• muscles of, . . 


107 


Infundibulum, 


• 177 


Fore -arm, bones of, 


30 


Instep, bones of, 


36 


Forehead, bones of, . 


15 


Intercostal nerves, 


145 


Friction of muscles prevenl 




Intervertebral substance, 


24 


ed, . . . . 


55 


Intestines, . . . 


252 


Frogs, breathing of, 


228 


Involuntary nerves, 


150 


Frog's heart, . 


120 


" muscles, 


51 






Iris, 1 


38, 190 


G. 




Irritability of muscles, . 


53 


Gall-bladder, . . . 


241 






Galvanism, 


54 


J. 




Gastric juice, . 


254 


Jaw, bones of, . 


20 


Ginglymus articulation, 


30 


" upper, muscles of, . . 


64 


Gizzard, .... 


247 


" lower, muscles of, . 


65 


Gland, lachrymal, . 


204 


Jejunum, .... 


252 


Glasses, convex, why needed 


, 205 


Joints, apparatus of, 


110 


Glenoid cavity, 


29 


Juice, gastric, . 


254 


Glires, . . . . . 


213 






Globe of the eye, . 


185 


K. 




Glottis, muscles of, 


69 


Knee joint, .... 


45 



INDEX. 



2S3 





Page. 


1 




Page. 


L. 




1 Mitral valve, . 




. 123 


Larynx, .... 


. 234 


Modiolus, 




. 177 


Labyrinth, 


. 170 


1 Molar teeth, . 




43 


Lacteals, .... 


. 253 


! Mouth, fluids of, 




. 258 


Lambdoidal suture, 


19 


Musicians, movement of their 


Language, 


. 230 


fingers, . 




52 


Leg, muscles of, 


. 100 


Muscles, . 




49 


Lens, crystalline, . 


. 196 


" of the eye, 




. 185 


Ligaments, 


. 44 


Musical ear, 




. 180 


" of the hand, 


46 


Myology, 




49 


" of the foot, . 


47 








Lingual nerve, 


. 156 


N. 






Lion's eyes, 


. 204 


Nails, 




. 260 


Liver, 


. 241 


Nasal sounds, 




236 


Lizards, breathing of, . 


. 227 


Natural skeleton, . 




45 


Lobus, .... 


. 159 


Naviculare, os, 




31 


Lobes of the brain, 


. 142 


Near-sightedness, . 




206 


Loins, bones of, 


27 


Neck, muscles of, . 




65 


Lumbar nerves, 


145 


Nerve, optic, . 




199 


Lunare, os, ... 


31 


Nerves in the bones, 




33 


Lungs, .... 


221 


" of the arm, . 




149 


11 position of, . 


233 


" spinal, 




144 


" of birds, 


230 


Neurology, 




141 


" of the chameleon,. 


223 


Nictitans, 
Ninth nerve, . 




203 
156 


M. 




Nose, bones of, 




20 


Magnum, os, . 


31 


Nostrils, fluids of, . 




257 


Male and female skeleton, 


33 








Malformation, of the bones, 


27 


O. 






Malleolar process, . 


35 


Object, position of, 




209 


Mammalia, 


115 


" only one seen 


wit 


ti 


Man's vision under water, 


216 


both eyes, . . 




210 


Manubrium manus, 




Occipital bone, 




16 


Marrow, spinal, 


141 


(Esophagus, . 




239 


Maters, 


143 


Old age, effects on visior 


i, 


194 


Meatus auditorius, 


162 


" " effects of on 


th 


e 


Mechanism of the nerves, . 




spine, .... 




24 


" of the stomach, 


246 


Olfactory nerves, 




153 


Medulla oblongata, . 1 


i2, 144 


Omentum, 




241 


Membrana tympani, 


164 


Optic nerves, . 


1, 


53, 199 


" nictitans, 


203 


Orbiculare, os, 




31 


Membrane of the bones, 


37 


Organs of sense double, 




144 


Meniscus, . . . . 


199 


" complicated, 


• 


182 


Mesentery, . 


254 


Organization, unfavorab 


le t< 


3 


Metacarpus, . . . . 


31 


life, . . . . . 




113 


Metatarsus, . 


36 


Os brachii, 


. 


29 


Milk teeth, . 




" calcis, 


• 


36 



284 



INDEX. 





Page. 




Page. 


Os hyoides, 


22 


Puncta lachrymalia, 


204 


" sacrum, 


28 


Pupil, . . 


190 


11 maxillare inferius, , 


21 


" oval, oblique, &c, 


191 


Ossa carpi, 


30 






11 humeri, . 


29 


a. 




11 innominata, . 


2S 


Quizzing-glasses, . 


207 


" tarsi, 


36 






" lachrymalia, . 


21 


R. 




" palatina, . 


21 


Radius, < 


30 


Ossicula auditus, • 


22 


Rays, colorific, 


208 


Osteogony, 


38 


Rays, eyes of, 


213 


Osteology, 


8 


Rectum, . . . . 


252 


Ostrich, air cells of, 


. 231 


Red glasses, 


208 


Owl's eye, . . , 


. 188 


" pupils of albinos, . 


212 


Oysters, breathing of, 


. 226 


Reeded instruments, 


236 






Rennet, .... 


. 250 


P. 




Reptiles require but little ox) 


r- 


Pachydermata, tapetum 


of, . 213 


gen, .... 


229 


Palate bones, . 


21 


Respiration, 


, 222 


Palm, bones of, 


31 


" voluntary, 


222 


Pancreas, 


. 243 


Rete mucosum, 


259 


Parietal bones, 


16 


Retina, .... 


. 189 


Partial deafness, 


. 182 


Ribs, .... 


25 


Par vagum, 


. 155 


Rima glottidis, 


236 


Pelvis, bones of, 


11 


Rope-dancers, 


52 


" muscles of, 


72,73 


Ruminantia, tapetum of, 


213 


Perception, 


. 218 


Rumination, 


. 249 


Periosteum, 


37 






Pericardium, . 


. 125 


s. 




Permanent deafness, 


. . 182 


Sacculus vestibuli, 


. 158 


Phalanges, 


32 


Sagittal suture, 


19 


Pharynx, muscles of, 


68 


Saliva, .... 


. 258 


Pia mater, 


. 143 


Sartorius, 


50 


Picking the ear a bad 


prac- 


Scapulae, .... 


28,29 


tice, 


. 182 


Scarf-skin, 


. 259 


Picture, minuteness of ] 


n the 


Scheme of the nerves of th 


e 


eye, . . . 


. 209 


face, .... 


. 154 


Pigeon, stomach of, 


. 248 


School-room seats, 


26 


Pigmentum nigrum, 


. 201 


Sciatic nerve, . 


. 146 


Plantar arteries, 


. . 131 


Sclerotica, 


. 187 


Pleura, 


. 220 


Secondary cataracts, 


. 197 


Polypus, seat of, 


21 


Seeing in the dark, 


. 212 


Popliteal arteries, 


. . 131 


Semicircular canals, . 1 


73,174 


Preparation of skulls, 


19 


Senses, .... 


. 158 


Processes, ciliary, 


. 191 


Septum cordis, 


. 123 


Pronation, 


30 


Serpents shed their skins, 


. 203 


Pulmonary artery, 


. . 122 


Serum of the blood, 


. 139 





INDEX. 


285 


Sesamoid bones, 


Page. 

37 


Temporal bone, 


Page. 
17 


Seventh nerve, 


. 155 


Tendons, .... 


54 


Shark's eye, 


. 189 


Thigh, muscles of, . 


96 


Sheep, stomach of, 


. 250 


Thorax, bones of, . 


10 


Shoulder, bones of, 


. . 28 


" muscles of, 


74,75 


Shoulders, why they become 


" viscera of, 


. 220 


round, . 


24 


Thoracic duct, 


. 240 


Skeleton, front view of, 


12 


" nerves, 


. 145 


" back view of, 


13 


Thumb, bones of, . 


32 


Skin, 


. 258 


Thymus gland, 


. 240 


Skull, bones of, 


. 9, 15 


Thyroid cartilages, 


. 235 


Smell, sense of, 


. 218 


Tibae, .... 


34 


Smoking injurious tc 


the 


Tiger's eyes, . 


. 204 


teeth, . 


44 


Tobacco injurious to th 


e 


Socket of the eye, . 


. 1S4 


teeth, .... 


44 


Sound, 


. 159 


Tongue, bone of, 


10 


Sphsenoid bone, 


17 


" muscles of, 


66 


Spinal marrow, 


141,145 


Trapezoides, . 


31 


" nerves, 




Tripe, . . 


251 


Spine, 


22 


Trunk, muscles of, 


66 


Spinous fishes, 


. 175 


11 bones of, 


10 


Spiracula, 


. 223 


Tumors of the ear, 


152 


Splanchnology, 


. 220 


Tunica arachnoides, 


. 143 


Spleen, .... 


. 243 


" conjunctiva, 


202 


Squinting", 


. 211 


Turbinated bones, 


20 


Stays, effects of, 


42 


Tympanum, 


166 


Sternum, .... 


25 






Stethoscope, 


. 132 


U. 




Stomach, .... 


. 245 


Ulna, .... 


30 


" offish, . . 


. 246 


Unciforme, 


31 


Structure of bones, 


14 


Uvula, .... 


239 


" of the brain, . 


. 143 






Sugar not injurious tc 


► the 


V. 




teeth, .... 


44 


Valsalvi, sinus of, 


130 


Supination, 


30 


Valvulse conniventes, 


253 


Suspended animation, . 


56 


Valves in the veins, 


136 


Sutures, .... 


18 


Vasa vasorum, 


132 


Sympathetic nerve, 


. 157 


Veins, 


135 


Syndesmology, 


44 


" origin of, 


136 


Systole of the heart, 


. 124 


Vena cava, 


121 






Venous blood, 


111 


T. 




Venae vorticosae, 


200 


Tape turn, 


. 1SS 


Ventricles, of the heart, 


120 


Taste, sense of, 


. 21S 


Ventriloquism, 


237 


Tears, .... 


, 204 


Vertebrae, 


22 


Tear bones, 


21 


" muscles of, . 


77 


Teeth, .... 


10,43 


Vestibule, . 


173 



286 



INDEX. 



Vibrations on the ear drum 


Page. 1 
179 


Vis insita, 


53 


Vision, how injured, 


, 207 


Vital temperature, 


55 


Vitality of the blood, . 


137 


Vitreous humor, 


198 


Vocal sounds of animals, 


, 229 


" box, 


234 


Voice, .... 


233 


Voluntary muscles, 


51 


Vomer, 


20 



Vox rauca, 



W. 



Water, how fishes see in, 
Wax, of the ear, . . 
Weariness of muscles, 
Wisdom teeth, 
Wolves' eyes, 
Worms, stomachs of, . 
Wrist, . . . . 



Page. 
236 



215 

163 

53 

43 

204 

249 

30 



APFROVHD SCHOOL BOOKS, 

PRINTED AND SOLD BY 

ROBERT S . DAVIS, 

[Of the late firm of Lincoln, Edmands & Co.] 
NO. 77, WASHINGTON STREET, 

BOSTON. 



Sold also, by all the principal Booksellers in the United States. 



THE NATIONAL ARITHMETIC ; combining the 

Analytic and Synthetic Methods, in which the principles of Arithmetic 
are explained and illustrated in a perspicuous and familiar manner; con- 
taining also practical systems of Mensuration of Superficies and Solids, 
Guaging, Geometry and Book-Keeping, by single and double entry ; form- 
ing a complete Mercantile Arithmetic ; designed for schools and acade- 
mies — by Benjamin Greenleaf, A. M. Preceptor of Bradford Academy. 

§£jr This work contains much practical information relating to foreign 
and domestic business transactions, being well adapted both for the mer- 
chant and mechanic. A complete analysis, or mathematical demonstra- 
tion, has been given of all the principal Rules. As much mental arith- 
metic has been introduced, as was deemed necessary for students generally. 
It also contains much original matter, particularly the method of adding 
and subtracting fractions that have a common numerator. 

It is believed that no similar work, of the same compass, has so much 
valuable matter; and from the many testimonials of approbation which 
the author of this work has received from teachers of distinction, the Pub- 
lisher has great confidence in presenting it to the attention of teachers, 
school committees, and all interested in the cause of education, who are 
respectfully invited to call and receive a copy for examination. 

The following communication, exhibiting some of the prominent char- 
acteristics of this work, is from Dr Fox, principal of the Boylston School, 
Boston. 

Boston, Dec. 14, 1835. 

Mr B. Greenleaf— Dear Sir — I have just been examining your new 
Arithmetic, and think it an excellent work. I like the plan of it much. 
Among its many excellences I perceive the following, viz. — the tables of 
money, weights and measures carried out to the lowest denomination, the 
great variety of examples under each Rule, and likewise your method of 
treating several parts of the Science, as Fractions, Proportion, Evolution 
and Exchange — every thing concerning them must appear clear, I think, 

1 



Approved School Books, 



to the student. The Geometry, Philosophical Problems, Mechanical 
Powers, and Book-Keeping, seem also to be handled in a perspicuous man- 
ner. The Rules of Cross Multiplication and Position, I am happy to see 
have place in the work ; for, after all, they are too useful, the latter espe- 
cially, to be omitted in our arithmetical treatises. On the whole, the 
work appears to me well calculated to lead youth to a clear and thorough 
knowledge of the various branches of this Science, and I doubt not it will 
be sought after, as an improvement on former works of the kind, and ob- 
tain an extensive circulation. Yours, respectfully, 

Charles Fox. 

From the Principal o the Young Ladies' High School, Boston. 

Mr Robert S. Davis, Sir — I have carefully examined Mr Greenleaf s 
Arithmetic, and think it a valuable work. The arrangement is good ; the 
rules are distinctly announced, in their natural order, and the examples 
are copious and well chosen : the inductive plan does not seem to be very 
closely followed in the treatise, which some may regard as a defect ; on 
this point, however, the opinions of the author is entitled to great respect ; 
as few teachers have had more experience, or acquired a more enviable 
reputation in their profession. Very respectfully, yours, &c. 

E. Bailey. 

From Mr Page, Instrucier of the English High School, Neivburyport. 

Benjamin Greenleaf, Esq. — Dear Sir — I have with much care examin- 
ed the National Arithmetic, of which you are the author, and after 
having compared it, article by article, with the various other publications 
that have come to my handsj I hesitate not to say, that I think it contains 
a greater amount of matter, and a better arrangement of subjects than 
any other book I have seen. Your rules and explanations are clear 
and definite, and your examples are well calculated to fix them in the 
mind. I congratulate the community on this valuable accession to our 
list of school books ; and shall take pleasure in seeing your Arithmetic 
extensively introduced into all our schools, as also into that under my 
own care. Yours, with just respect, 

David P. Page. 

Neivburyport, Mass. March 5, 1836. 

Haverhill, 8th 1st Month, 1836. 

The undersigned, members of the General School Committee, of Ha- 
verhill, take the liberty of recommending to the purchasers of books for 
the use of Schools in this town, Greenleaf s National Arithmetic, as a 
work comprehending most of the advantages of the various treatises on 
the subject now before the public, and as more directly adapted to the 
practical interests of the community than any which have fallen under 
their notice. 

Geo. Kelly, 
Nathl. Gage, 
Joseph Whittlesey, 
Samuel H. Parkham, 
Abijah Cross. 



Published by Robert S. Davis. 



To Benjamin Greenleaf, A. M. Preceptor of Bradford Academy. 

Sir — the School Committee of the town of Bradford, having examined 
your National Arithmetic, are of opinion that the various rules are well 
arranged, and the numerous operations judiciously selected ; and that it 
is better adapted to the wants of our Academies and Schools than any 
Arithmetic now in common use, and do hereby recommend it to be used 
in the schools under our care. 

Jeremiah Spofford, Chairman of said Committee. 

Bradford, Feb. 12, 1836. 

From the Scientific Tracts, edited by Dr. X V. C. Smith. 

National Arithmetic. — Here is something valuable and of utility to 
the rising generation. It teaches, in a clear, methodical manner, the first 
principles as well as the complex operations of figures. The author is 
Benjamin Greenleaf, Esq. a distinguished instructer of youth, at present 
the Preceptor of Bradford Academy — an important recommendation of 
itself. We are very careful not to praise, unless there is positive evi- 
dence of merit, which in the National Arithmetic is discoverable on 
every page, from the beginning to the end. 

From the Essex Gazette. 

The present work has many advantages over other Arithmetics that 
have preceded it. As its title indicates, it is a national work, combining 
the Analytic and Synthetic methods — and forming an inductive and 
practical system, alike interesting to the scholar and^clerk. Besides all 
the general rules of Arithmetic, it contains mercantile rules adapted to 
our currency and mode of business, and also a plain system of Book- 
Keeping, intelligible to all who may wish to prepare themselves for the 
Counting-House. The miscellaneous questions are interesting and high- 
ly instructive, many of them being of a curious and statistical character. 

Boston, Jan. 15, 1836. 
Mr Robert S. Davis — Dear Sir — I have carefully examined the Na- 
tional Arithmetic — a copy of which you were kind enough to send me. I 
have delayed speaking decidedly of its merits, until a small class in my 
school had studied the more difficult parts of it. In my judgment, M r 
Greenleaf has very judiciously arranged the whole treatise. The plan of 
the work and its execution are so excellent, that it must rapidly acquire 
that favor which it so richly deserves. 

Charles H. Allex. 

From the Daily Morning Post. 

The Author is entitled to much credit for the ingenuity and improve- 
ment in various parts of the work ; and we sincerely wish him that libe- 
ral encouragement to which his talents, as a mathematician, and useful- 
nes s, as a teacher, justly entitle him. 



Approved School Books. 



From the N. H. Patriot and State Gazette. 

From the high reputation of Mr Greenleaf, as a teacher of mathemat- 
ics, based on his uncommon success while employed in that capacity for 
the last thirty years, no sooner had we learned that it was in a state of 
preparation, than we anticipated a publication of superior merit and util- 
ity. Presented before us, its attractive external appearance renewed and 
increased those favorable anticipations, which a diligent perusal and 
careful examination have fully confirmed. If we are not greatly mistak- 
en the National Arithmetic is deserving and will receive ample patron- 
age — as much more extensive than other similar treatises within our 
knowledge, as it excels them in general excellence and a better and more 
skilful adaptation to the attainment and accomplishment of the impor- 
tant objects designed to be secured. This is said with a perfect con- 
sciousness that a great number of arithmetical compilations are now in 
common use, possessing no slight claims to public confidence, and that it 
is no moderate encomium, to say of any new publication, it surpassed the 
deservedly popular works of Adams, Smith, Colburn, Emerson, &c. But 
this we do assert of the one in hand — regarding always the purposes for 
which it was intended. We have not time to particularize its merits. It 
is sufficient to observe that the declaration of its title page, which indeed 
furnishes a very correct index to the character and contents of the suc- 
ceeding sheets, is almost verified — it forming, in our estimation, the near- 
est approximation to a complete Mercantile Arithmetic of any thing yet 
issued from the press in this country. 



From the Author of a popular Treatise on Astronomy. 

Mr B. Greenleaf, — Dear Sir — I have given your new Arithmetic all 
the perusal my time, limited by other avocations, would admit. I am 
pleased to find rules assume their proper plan. 

The work appears to contain a mass of solid matter. The numerous 
questions, diversified with great ingenuity, are well calculated to give the 
student a taste for other sciences. I cordially wish you success in so laud- 
able an effort to enlarge the sphere of useful knowledge, and that the Na- 
tional Arithmetic may have an extensive circulation. 

Very respectfully, your obt. serv't. 

John Vose. 

From the Principal of Guilford (N. H.) Academy. 

Guilford Academy, Feb. 27, 1836. 
Mr Benjamin Greenleaf— Dear Sir — I received a copy of your new 
Arithmetic about six weeks since, for which you will accept my 
thanks. I had opportunity to look at some parts of it while in press, and 
then formed a favorable opinion of it. The use of it several weeks in my 
school has more than corroborated the favorable opinion which I had 
first entertained of its merits : it contains much valuable matter of practi- 
cal utility, that which is new, examples of actual occurrence, the result 
of personal investigations, and the observations of school-room experi- 
ments. Its highly practical character is a great recommendation to it, 



Published by Robert S. Davis, 



?jid entitles it to public patronage. Its author has been engaged in teach- 
ing for many years, has devoted much attention to mathematical science, 
and has now laid before the public in an extended form, the results of 
his labor. We are glad to see works of this kind emanating from the 
hands of practical teachers, who certainly ought to know the wants of 
scholars better than persons engaged in other pursuits, and who certainly 
ought to be better qualified to prepare books suited to meet those wants. 
The typographical execution of the National Arithmetic is handsome, — 
it is printed on good paper. — the rules are expressed in a clear and com- 
prehensive maimer, — the examples for solution are couched in good lan- 
guage, and are divested of that ambiguity which defaces so many older 
Arithmetics, — -it contains much valuable matter not found in other works 
of the kind. It has subjoined to it a valuable system of Book-Keeping, 
and is the only one in use adapted to the wants of farmers and mechan- 
ics, with a Dya-Book and Leger, I have introduced it as a sequel to 
Emerson's Second Part, which is used in my school : I know of no Arith- 
metic better suited to the wants of schools than this, either as a book to 
be used separately, or as a sequel to the mental Arithmetics in use. I 
hope, sir, your publication will receive that ample patronage which its 
merits demand, and you thereby be rewarded for the arduous labors you 
have bestowed upon it. Respectfully yours, 

Dyer H. Sanborn. 

From the Principal of Marblehead Academy, 

Marblehead Academy, Feb. 25, 1836. 
To Mr B. Greenleaf— Dear Sir — Having thoroughly examined your 
National Arithmetic, I am prepared to express my full approbation of its 
utility. The principles of the science are fully explained and admirably 
applied to mercantile computations. Several rules and tables, generally 
omitted in common Arithmetics, contribute greatly to enhance the val- 
ue of the book, and recommend it to all who wish to acquire a thorough 
and practical knowledge of the common business of life. 

With respect, your friend and servant, 

Russell L. Hathaway. 

From Mr Brown. Principal of the Female Seminary Andover. 

Andover, Feb. 23, 1836. 
Mr Greenleaf— Dear Sir — I ought perhaps, before this, to have thank- 
ed you for the copy of your Arithmetic, which you sent me some weeks 
since: I have not been able to examine it so minutely as I could wish ; 
but from the cursory examination I have made, should think it would 
prove a valuable work, especially for those who are fitting for a business 
life. Wishing you success in all attempts to increase the facility and 
thoroughness of education, 

I am, dear Sir, your obt. serv't. 

Samuel. G. Brown. 

ALGER'S MURRAY'S GRAMMAR— Being an a- 

bridgment of Murray's English Grammar, with an Appendix, contain- 
ing exercises in Orthography, in Parsing, in Syntax, and in Punctuation 

i* 



•Approved School Books y 



— designed for the younger classes of learners— by Lindley Murray, To 
which questions are added, punctuation, and the notes under, Rules in 
Syntax copiously supplied from the author's large grammar - r being his 
own abridgment entire. Revised, prepared, and adapted to the use of the 
' English Exercise,'— by Israel Alger, Jr. A. M. recently a teacher in 
Hawkins street School, Boston, 

As a cheap and compendious elementary work for general use, this is 
probably the best Grammar extant, which is indicated, by its introduc- 
tion into many Schools and Academies, in various sections of the United 
States. Though furnished at a moderate price, it is so copious, as, in 
most cases, to supersede the necessity of a larger work. 

i^ 3 By a vote of the School Committee, this work was introduced into 
all the public Schools of the City of Boston, 

ALGER'S MURRAY'S ENGLISH EXERCISES 

—consisting of Exercises in parsing, instances of false Orthography, vio- 
lations of the rules in Syntax, defects in Punctuation, and violation of 
the rules respecting perspicuous and accurate writing — with which the 
corresponding rules, notes and observations, in Murray's Grammar are 
incorporated j also, References in Promiscuous Exercises to the Rules by 
which the errors are to be corrected. Revised, prepared and particular- 
ly adapted to the use of Schools, by Israel Alger, Jr. A. M, 

Extract from the Preface. 

It is believed that both teachers and pupils have labored under numer- 
ous and serious inconveniences, in relation to certain parts of these Ex- 
ercises, for the want of those facilities which this volume is designed to 
supply. Those rules in Mr Murray's Grammar which relate to the cor- 
rection of each part of the Exercises in Orthography, Syntax, Punctua- 
tion and Rhetorical construction, have been introduced into this manual 
immediately preceding the Exercises to which they relate. The pupil 
being thus furnished with the principles by which he is to be governed 
in his corrections, may pursue his task with profit .and pleasure. In this 
edition, more than forty 18mo. pages of matter have been added from Mr 
Murray's Grammar. 

ALGER'S PRONOUNCING INTRODUCTION 

to Murray's English Reader, in which accents are placed on the princi- 
pal words, to give Walker's pronunciation. Handsomely printed, from 
stereotype plates. 

ALGER'S PRONOUNCING ENGLISH READ- 

er — being Murray's Reader, accented by Israel Alger, Jr. Printed from 
handsome stereotype plates, on good paper, and neatly bound. 

Notice of the Pronouncing Introduction and Reader ', from the Journal of 

Education. 

These books are valuable contributions to a general and extensive ref- 
ormation in the style of reading. The department of pronunciation is 
treated with a rigor and closeness of attention, which it has never before 



Published by Robert S. Davis. 



received. Every word in which any mistake could be made, is carefully 
and distinctly marked. If these editions of Murray's Reading Books 
should obtain, as we hope they will, the exclusive currency in our schools, 
in town and country, it would take but a few years to produce a uniform 
and correct pronunciation throughout the United States. In this edition 
of these justly popular works, the progress of improvement in the schools 
of this countrv has outstripped that in England. School Books, such as 
these before us, would be of great service there, in rooting out the pro- 
vincial peculiarities which are still suffered to remain in too many 
places. 

THE CLASSICAL READER. A Selection of Les- 

sons in Prose and Verse. From the most esteemed English and Ameri- 
can Writers. Intended for the use of the higher classes in Public and 
Private Seminaries. By Rev. F. W. P. Greenwood, and G. B. Emerson, 
of Boston. 

This work is highly approved, as a First Class Reader, and has re- 
ceived many commendable notices, from Public Journals throughout the 
United States, from which the following are selected. 

From the American Journal of Education. 

We are happy to see another valuable addition to the list of reading 
books, — one which has been compiled with a strict regard to the tenden- 
cy of the pieces it contains, and which bears the stamp of so high a stand- 
ard of literary taste. In these respects the Classical Reader is highly 
creditable to its editors. 

Extract from tlie North American Review. 

The Classical Reader is selected from the very best authors, and the 
quantity from each, or the number of pieces of a similar character, by dif- 
ferent authors, affords all that can be required for classes, and in suffi- 
cient variety, too, of manner, to facilitate greatly the formation of correct 
habits of reading, and a good taste. From each of those considerations, 
we give it our cordial recommendation. 

From the Visiter and Telegraph, Richmond, Va. 

This work is a valuable acquisition to our schools. It is a work pure- 
ly national and modern. It has many valuable historical facts and an- 
ecdotes in relation to the early history, the character, manners, geography 
and scenery of our country. In the matter it contains, it is well adapted 
to the taste, feelings, and habits of the present age. It embodies many of 
the brightest and most sparkling gems of Irving, Webster. Everett, Jef- 
ferson, Channing, Sparks, Bryant, Percival, &c. 

PROGRESSIVE EXERCISES IN ENGLISH 

COMPOSITION— by R. G. Parker, A. M. Principal of the Franklin 
Grammar School, Boston, 12th stereotype edition. The Author, desirous 
of rendering this work more worthy of the favor it has received, has 
made some additions, which will supersede the necessity of using any 
abridged treatise of Rhetoric in connection with it. 

i^j- As evidence in favor of the merit and utility of this work, the fact 
may be stated, that upwards of thirty thousand copies have already been 



Approved School Books, 



called for, in various sections of the United States. It lias been republish- 
ed and stereotyped in England, and received commendable notices from 
the public Journals. 

From the London Journal of Education. 

The design of this work is unexceptionably good. By a series of pro- 
gressive exercises, the scholar is conducted from the formation of easy 
sentences to ihe more difficult and complex arrangement of words and 
ideas. He is, step by step, initiated into the Rhetorical propriety of the 
language, and furnished with directions and models for analyzing, classi- 
fying and writing down his thoughts in a distinct and comprehensive 
manner. 

The following notice is extracted from the last London edition : ' A 
third edition of this little work having been called for within the present 
year, (1834,) is no small testimony of its utility, both as a guide to the 
Teacher, and an aid to the Pupil, in one of the most difficult, though 
most important, departments of education.' 

The following Recommendations, exhibiting the character of the work, 
from distinguished Teachers, are selected from a large number in posses- 
sion of the Publisher : 

From Mr Walker, Principal of the Eliot School, Boston. 

This work is evidently the production of a thorough and practical 
teacher, and in my opinion it does the author much credit. By such a 
work, all the difficulties and discouragements which the pupil has to en- 
counter, in his first attempts to write, are in a great measure removed, 
and he is led on progressively in a methodical and philosophical manner, 
till he can express his ideas on any subject which circumstances or occa- 
sion may require, not only with sufficient distinctness and accuracy, but 
even with elegance and propriety. An elementary treatise on compo- 
sition, like the one before me, is certainly much wanted at the present 
day. I think this work will have an extensive circulation, and I hope 
the time is not distant, when this branch of education, hitherto much neg- 
lected, will receive that attention, which in some degree its importance 
demands. 

From Walter R. Johnson, Esq. Philadelphia. 

Having often felt the necessity of reducing to its simple elements the 
art of composition, and having been compelled, from the want of regular 
treatises, to employ graduated exercises expressly prepared for the pur- 
pose, and similar in many respects to those contained in your treatise, I 
can speak with confidence of their utility, and do not hesitate to recom- 
mend them to the attention of teachers. 

From Rev. Mr Burroughs, of Portsmouth, N. H. 

I was much gratified by the receipt of your book, entitled Progressive 
Exercises in English Composition ; and, if possible, still more so by its 
original, judicious and excellent plan. It is a valuable and .successful at- 
tempt to give instruction in relation to one of the most difficult, though 
important departments of education ; and I should conceive it would af- 
ford great pleasure, as well as benefit to the minds of the young. 1 sin- 
cerely hope that it will be introduced into our schools, where such a work 
has been loner wanted. 



Published by Robert S. Davis. 



From Mr Andrews, Principal of ML Vernon School, Boston. 

Parker's Progressive Exercises in English Composition, Will, in my 
opinion, aid the teacher and encourage the pupil, in this important branch 
of education. I feel confident that the work will be highly acceptable to 
those who have experienced the difficulties to be surmounted in bringing 
forward a class to compose with any degree of accuracy. 

From Samuel P. Newma?i, Professor of Rhetoric in Bowdoin College. 

I have examined ' Progressive Exercises in English Composition' — by 
R. G. Parker, with some care, and hesitate not to express an opinion that 
it is well adapted to the purpose for which it is designed. It is well fitted 
to call into exercise the ingenuity of the pupil, to acquaint him with the 
more important principles and rules of Rhetoric, and to guide and aid 
his first attempts in the difficult work of composition. 

From Mr Pike, late Preceptor of Framingham Academy. 

I have recently put a class of boys into Mr Parker's ' Progressive Ex- 
ercises in Composition.' They are deeply interested, and find much pleas- 
ure, and I trust profit, in passing from lesson to lesson. I have never be- 
fore seen boys so much interested in ' Writing Composition,' usually es- 
teemed one of the heaviest burdens imposed upon them. 

From Dr Fox, Principal of the Boylston School, Boston. 

This little manual, by the simplicity of its arrangement, is calculated 
to destroy the repugnance, and to remove the obstacles which exist in the 
minds of young scholars to performing the task of composition. I think 
this work will be found a valuable auxiliary to facilitate the progress of 
the scholar, and lighten the labor of the teacher. 

From Mr Greenleaf, Preceptor of Bradford Academy. 

Bradford Academy, Dec. 22, 1834. 
Dear Sir, — For more than a year, we have made use of Parker's Pro- 
gressive Exercises in English Composition.' We find it is an excellent 
book, and, in our opinion, it is superior to any other work of the kmd, 
that we have seen. It is absolutely necessary, that young scholars, when 
they commence 'writing composition,' should have some assistance to 
aid and direct their progress, and we think this work admirably adapted 
for this purpose. We most cordially recommend it to the attention of 
High Schools and Academies. 

Yours, very respectfully, Benjamin Greenleaf, 

From the American Annals of Education and Instruction. 

We have seen no work which seems to us so useful as a guide to the 
teacher, and an aid to the pupil. 

From the IV t. Rev. G. W. Doane, Bishop of Neiv Jersey, formerly professor 
of Rhetoric and Oratory in Washington College. 

Your little book on composition is excellent. It is the best help to that 
difficult exercise for the young that I have ever seen. 

f3f The same author has in course of preparation, a Second Part, or 
Sequel to the above popular school book, which will be published soon. 



10 Approved School Books , 

BOSTON SCHOOL ATLAS. Embracing a Com- 
pendium of Geography. Containing 17 Maps and Charts. Embellished 
with instructive Engravings. Eighth edition, handsomely stereotyped. 

Although this book was designed for the younger classes in schools, for 
which it is admirably calculated, yet its maps are so complete, its ques- 
tions so full, and its summary of the science so happily executed, that, in 
the opinion of many, it contains all that is necessary for the pupil in our 
common schools. It comprises the following Maps and CHART- 
MOUNTAINS. CHART— RIVERS. MAP OF THE WORLD. 
NORTH AMERICA. UNITED STATES. MAINE. VERMONT 
AND NEW HAMPSHIRE. MASSACHUSETTS, CONNECTI- 
CUT, AND RHODE ISLAND. NEW YORK, with the Environs 
of the City. PENNSYLVANIA, MARYLAND, NEW JERSEY, 
AND DELAWARE, with the Environs of Philadelphia. WESTERN 
STATES. SOUTH AMERICA. EUROPE. BRITISH ISLES. 
ASIA. AFRICA. CHART— CANALS AND RAIL ROADS IN 
THE UNITED STATES. 

The Maps are all beautifully engraved and painted ; and that of Mas- 
sachusetts, Connecticut, and Rhode Island, contains the boundaries of 
every town in those States. 

From the Preface to the Sixth Edition. 

The universal approbation and extensive patronage bestowed upon the 
former editions of the Boston School A tlas, has induced the publishers to 
present this edition with numerous improvements. The maps of the 
World, North America, United States, Europe, England, and Asia, 
have been more perfectly drawn, and re-engraved on steel; and the maps 
of Maine, of New Hampshire and Vermont, and of the Western States, 
also, on steel, have been added ; and some improvements have been made 
in the Elemental part. 

It has been an object, in the revision of this edition, to keep the work, 
as much as possible, free from subjects liable to changes, and to make it 
a permanent Geography, which may hereafter continue to be used in class- 
es without the inconvenience of essential variations in different editions. 

From R. G. Parker, Master of the Franklin School, Boston. 

I have examined a copy of the Boston School Atlas, and have no hes- 
itation in recommending it as the best introduction to the study of Geog- 
raphy that I have seen. The compiler has displayed much judgment 
in what he has omitted, as well as what he has selected ; and has thereby 
presented to the public a neat manual of the elements of the science, un- 
encumbered with useless matter and uninteresting detail. The mechan- 
ical execution of the work is neat and creditable, and I doubt not that its 
merits will shortly introduce it to general use. 

Respectfully yours, R. G. Parker. 

From E. Bailey, Principal of the Young Ladies' School, Boston. 

I was so well pleased with the plan and execution of the Boston School 
Atlas, that I introduced it into my school, soon after the first edition was 
published. I regard it as the best work, for beginners in the study of 
Geography, which has yet fallen under my observation ; as such I would 
recommend it to the notice of parents and teachers. 



Published by Robert S. Davis. 1 1 



From Rev. Benj. F. Farnsworth, Principal of the New Hampton Literary 
and Tlieological Seminary. 

New Hampton, Oct. 14, 1830. 

I have long lamented the deficiency of school books in the elementary 
parts of education. A good introd action to the study of Geography has 
been much needed. The Boston School Atlas, recently published by you, 
appears well ; and I think it should be preferred to most other works of 
the same class. I know of none that could be used with equal advan- 
tage in its place. 1 hope you may succeed in making School Commit- 
tees and teachers acquainted with this Introduction, to an interesting and 
important study of our primary schools ; as I doubt not that in this, case, 
it may obtain a very desirable patronage. Yours, respectfully, 

Bexj. F. Farnsworth. 

From the United States Literary Advertiser, Boston. 

This is one of the most beautiful elementary works of the kind, which 
has yet come within the range of our observation. The maps are ele- 
gantly executed, and finely colored — and the whole work is got up in a 
style that cannot fail to insure its general introduction into our schools, 
as a most valuable standard book. 

From the Principal of one of the High Schools in Portland. 

I have examined the Boston School Atlas, Elements of Geography, &c, 
and think it admirably adapted to beginners in the study of the several 
subjects treated on. It is what is wanted in all books for learners — sim- 
ple, philosophical, and practical. I hope it will be used extensively. 

Yours, respectfully. Jas. Furbish. 

I have perused your Boston School Atlas with much satisfaction. It 
seems to me to be what has been needed as an introduction to the study 
of Geography, and admirably adapted to that purpose. 

Very respectfully, yours, &c. B. D. Emerson. 

^ I have examined the 'Boston School Atlas,' and I assure you I am 
highly pleased with it. It appears to me to contain exactly what it should, 
to render it an easy and adequate introduction to the study of Geography. 
Yours, respectfully, F. Emerson. " 

FOWLE S GEOGRAPHY, with an ATLAS. This 

Geography is used with great success in the Monitorial School in 
Boston, and meets with universal approbation among instructers. The 
Atlas is considered to be the most correct and beautiful ever presented to 
our schools. 

Extract of a letter from, an accomplished Instructer in Philadelphia. 
I hope to see Fowle's Geography introduced into several schools here. 
It is certainly an excellent work. 

f^Many amusing Geographies have been published, adapted to please 
the young; but the present work is offered to the public with the attrac- 
tions of great accuracy, copious information, easy and natural arrange- 
ment on the inductive plan, and greatly improved and highly finished 
maps, beautifully painted. Many of the most judicious instructers have 
introduced it, and all persons engaged in education are requested to ex- 
amine it. 



12 Approved School Books. 

ADAMS' GEOGRAPHY and ATLAS. On a plan 

highly approved. Designed for Schools and Academies. 

|^T More than 90,000 copies have been published, and it may justly be 
said, that probably no work is better adapted to the use of schools in gene- 
ral, where an extended description of the world is desired. 

The 15th and corrected edition, with a beautiiul Atlas, contains an ad- 
ditional map, exhibiting the Western States, — many useful cuts, and ad- 
ditional matter. It is gratifying to the publisher, that although numer- 
ous School Geographies have been issued since this work appeared, yet 
Adams' Geography retains all its popularity, and is constantly increasing 
in circulation. Indeed the excellence of its'plan needs only to be examin- 
ed to be admired. Instead of interspersing the whole book with statis- 
tics and exercises on the Maps, Dr. Adams has comprised this depart- 
ment in about one third of the Book, entitled the Grammar, or Second 
Part. This is the part particularly to be studied, and simplifies the la- 
bor of the pupil and teacher, by presenting the lesson to be committed 
without the necessity of marking off particular portions. The Third 
Part, which is an animated description of the World, is then read iu class- 
es with a lively interest, not being interrupted by dry details or statis- 
tical tables. This work is furnished at such a moderate price, that it is 
well suited to the public schools in our country. 

Notice to the fifteenth Edition. 

Besides the necessary alterations in the body of the work, which the 
last census and the state of the countries demanded, many useful embel- 
lishments have been, inserted in this work. The Atlas has been revised 
and redrawn, and the whole engraved on steel, with the United States 
and New England much enlaiged. Thus it is the design of the publish- 
ers to render this popular geography still worthy of the extensive patron- 
age it continues to receive from an enlightened community. 

BOSTON SCHOOL DICTIONARY. Walker's 

Critical Pronouncing Dictionary, and Expositor of the English Language. 
Abridged for the use of Schools, throughout the United States. 

fj^This handsome and correct edition, prepared for the Boston schools, 
with great care, has so long been used, that it is only necessary for the 
publisher to keep it in a respectable dress, to ensure it a general circula- 
tion. 

The price of the work, neatly bound in leather, is reduced to 50 cts. 

WELCH'S IMPROVED AMERICAN ARITH- 
METIC and PRACTICAL MENSURATOR. 

ZEUNER'S MUSICAL MANUAL, for Sabbath 

Schools and Conference Meetings. 

f3j= The Publisher respectfully solicits the attention of Teachers. School 
Committees, and all interested in the cause of Education, to the foregoing 
list of School Books,— feeling confident that an examination of the works, 
will had to a conviction of their merits, — copies of which will be furnish- 
ed for this purpose, without charge. 

JR. S. D. keeps also, a complete assortment of Books, in every department 
of Education. Also Stationery, which will be sold on the most reasonable 
terms. Country merchants and traders generally, will find it for their ad- 
vantage to call at his Store, Joy's Buildings, opposite the Post Office. 



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